188 
INA TORTS 
[ DECEMBER 24, 1903 
from the statistics of popular examinations, a disposition, 
in selecting the branch of science which shall form the found- 
ation of the scientific instruction in girls’ schools, to be 
guided rather by esthetic than by educational considerations. 
To take one instance, in the local examinations of the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge in 1902, while in the preliminary 
grade 1776 boys presented themselves in various branches of 
physics and chemistry, there were only 175 girls offering 
these subjects; on the contrary, 481 girls offered botany as 
compared with 65 boys. The same thing was true in the 
junior and senior grades; in the former about 5000 boys 
took up various subjects of physics and chemistry as com- 
pared with 300 girls, and in the latter the numbers were :— 
boys, more than 1300, girls, just over 100; in botany, 
on the contrary, the number of junior girls was 754, junior 
boys 29, of senior girls 261, senior boys 14. It is not 
suggested that it is impossible to inculcate scientific methods 
by means of the study of botany, for Prof. Miall has shown 
the contrary quite conclusively, but a knowledge of current 
text-books and methods leads to the belief that, nowadays 
at least, the above contention is a just one. 
The urgent need at present, and one which might well 
engage the earnest attention of men of science, is to formu- 
late a scheme of scientific instruction for girls’ schools 
which, while inculcating the fundamental principles of 
physics and chemistry, shall lead to an intelligent appli- 
cation of these principles to the practical requirements of 
the household, whether in the kitchen, in the nursery, or in 
the general sanitary arrangements. Though such a course 
might well form the basis of the science teaching, there is 
no reason why an intelligent acquaintance with animate 
nature should not also be made. Nor need the special re- 
quirements of those girls who will later, instead of devoting 
their energies to home-life elect to take up scientific or 
medical work, be neglected. Since, as the imposing list of 
women engaged in scientific work given in the ‘‘ English- 
woman’s Year-Book,’’ and the growing number of women 
doctors (177 were registered in the British Medical Register 
i1 1894) show, there is an increasing attraction for women 
in the study of science, due provision for specialisation in 
science should be made in those secondary schools where 
girls remain until nineteen. 
Tue CONTINENT OF EUROPE. 
In dealing with the provisions made for the university 
education of women in the different European countries, it 
is a little difficult to present inclusive generalisations. The 
local conditions vary so widely, and the national peculiarities 
are so various, that the most satisfactory plan is to deal 
separately with those countries in connection with which 
materials are available. Moreover, it is difficult within the 
limits of a single article, to attempt to summarise the history 
of the attempts made to improve matters so far as the higher 
education of women is concerned, and in the main it will 
be necessary to limit attention to the present state of affairs. 
In Austria, to take the countries in alphabetical order, a 
decree of 1897, revising one made by the Minister of Educa- 
tion in 1878 regulating the admission of women to the 
universities of that country, ordained that any woman more 
than eighteen years of age who is a native of Austria may 
be admitted as a hearer to the philosophical faculty of an 
Austrian university, provided she has passed the Reifeprii- 
fung or equivalent examination. The order for the 
admission of individual women is in the hands of the dean 
of the faculty, but an appeal may be made from his decision 
to the Minister of Education. Women hearers are under 
the same regulations as men. In 1896, Austrian women 
who had studied medicine at a foreign university were 
placed on the same footing as their countrymen in obtain- 
ing Austrian degrees in medicine. It is interesting to note 
in this connection that the first Austrian woman who 
obtained the degree of doctor of medicine did so at Vienna 
in 1897. 
Women have been admitted to the universities of Belgium 
on the same conditions as men since 1883, though it must 
be stated that the Free University of Louvain is an excep- 
tion, and does not admit women. Since 1890 an increasing 
number of Belgian women have availed themselves of the 
opportunity of university education. 
To the Danish universities women have been admitted 
NO. 1782, VOL. 69] 
under the same conditions as men since 1875, and may take 
examinations and degrees in all faculties except that of 
theology, in which there is a special examination for 
women. 
In Finland, women who wish to enter the University of 
Helsingfors, the only university in the country, must obtain 
the special permission of the chancellor of the university. 
Notwithstanding this impediment, there were in 1900 more 
than 200 women studying in the university. 
All the courses in all the faculties and schools of the 
French universities with the exception of the cours fermés 
and the practical work are public, and open free of charge 
to persons of either sex as hearers. Matriculated students 
alone may attend practical work and the cours fermés ; and 
to matriculate both men and women candidates must pre- 
sent a dipléme de l’enseignement secondaire. Women may 
become candidates for degrees on the same conditions as 
ten. Attestations d’études supérieures are given by some 
faculties to hearers who have attended the courses regularly. 
In the provincial universities no requirement is made as to 
sex, but in Paris the hearer, to obtain the certificate, must 
have taken a bachelor’s or an equivalent degree. It must 
be noted that not quite all the medical courses are open to 
women. The number of women students registered in 
French universities at the beginning of 1898 was 871, of 
whom 469 were studying medicine and 80 different branches 
of science. In the previous session 72 university degrees 
were obtained by women, but only one was in the science 
faculty, though 15 others were successful licentiates in 
science. 
The universities of Germany do not treat women in a 
uniform manner. ‘The conditions under which women study 
vary in different centres. As a rule, women are admitted 
only as hearers to the lectures of the philosophical faculty, — 
though some German universities have permitted attendance 
in the legal and medical faculties. In the winter session of 
1898-9, 414 women were in attendance at the ten Prussian 
universities as against 117 in 1895-6. At Berlin, Freiburg, 
Gétlingen, Heidelberg, and Tiibingen, women have been 
granted the degree of doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.). Even 
when women are admitted to the philosophical faculty of the 
universities they are mostly there on sufferance; they have 
no rights, and do not count as students. As Dr. Isabel 
Maddison has said, ‘‘ the whole question of the admission 
of women to the universities has given rise to much dis- 
cussion in Germany, and is still far from being settled. 
Many Germans regard the higher education of women as 
undesirable, and there is a strong objection manifested by 
a large number of the professors and students alike to the 
admission of women to the universities . . . the seriousness 
of purpose and the ability of individual women who have 
studied in Germany have, it is believed, done much towards 
destroying the prejudice against women students in the 
minds of the professors under whom they have worked.”’ 
In Greece, the National University in Athens was opened 
to women in 1895. ‘The other institutions in the country 
of university standing, such as the English School of Archz- 
ology, admit women to their lectures. In 1895, too, the 
philosophical and medical departments of the universities 
of Hungary were opened to women by the Minister of 
Education, but to enter the universities they have to fulfil 
exactly the same conditions as men. 
In Italy, in the Netherlands, and in Norway, women may 
enter the universities on a footing of equality with men. In 
Italy two classes of women students are admitted, viz. 
regular students and hearers. In the Netherlands no dis- 
tinction is made between men and women; the latter are 
allowed to matriculate and to take degrees. Since 1884 
women have been admitted to the lectures and degrees of 
the University of Christiania, and where there is no special 
regulation which prevents them, women may also compete 
for the scholarships and prizes. 
All Russian universities exclude women. Special classes 
are held at St. Petersburg for the higher instruction of 
women under the supervision of the Minister of Public 
Instruction. 
Speaking generally, the universities of Spain, Sweden, 
and Switzerland are open to women students. The Spanish 
universities have been open in a general way to women since 
1857, when the universities of the country were placed under 
the control of the General Director of Public Education, but 
