NoveMBER 19, 1896 | 
NATURE 
/ 
and a curious carving from the north-west coast of America ; 
and Mr. Thompson, some small terra-cotta heads from ancient 
Mexico.—Mr. Henry Balfour exhibited various native Indian 
preparations of hemp for consumption, and an ancient bow of 
Assyrian type foune in Egypt ina tomb of the NN VIth Dynasty, 
on which he read a paper. The interesting point about the bow 
was that it was of the composite type, at least one of the 
ingredients of which was not to be found in Egypt. The 
evidence available pointed to a more northern region, probably 
Assyria, as its place of origin, and this supposition was also 
borne our by historical facts. The indigenous Egyptian bow, a 
specimen of which was originally found near the other, and 
was now exhibited with it, was fundamentally different, being 
plain and not composite; the arrows also differed absolutely. A 
somewhat similar bow was now in the Berlin Museum. Mr. 
Balfour also exhibited a screen of typical Asiatic composite 
bows, and some transparencies in the form of thin sections 
cut from a number of bows of the same kind. Mr. 
Balfour subsequently read a paper on the life-history ofan Aghori 
Fakir, illustrated by an extensive exhibition of drinking-cups 
made from human skulls. At the conclusion of the paper Dr. 
Leitner made some interesting remarks on the Aghori sect. 
MANCHESTER. 
Literary and Philosophical Society, November 3.—On 
methods of determining the dryness of saturated steam, and the 
condition of steam gas, by Prof. Osborne Keynolds, F.R.S. In 
certain recent attempts to ascertain the proportion of steam and 
water in the fluid which enters a steam engine, by means of what 
is called the wire-drawing calorimeter, the published results 
show that there remains from 0 to 5 per cent. by weight of water 
in the steam, after it has been drained by gravitation, in the 
same manner as the steam on which Regnault’s experiments 
were made. This has necessarily excited great interest in steam 
engineering, and is naturally welcome, as it apparently brings 
the performance of the engines by so much nearer perfection. 
Although the results of these recent experiments appear to show 
the condition of dry saturated steam to be other than that on 
which Regnault’s experiments were made, and from which the 
present steam tables have been calculated, still these tables have 
been used in deducing the percentage of water latent in the 
steam. Whereas, if the latent water exists, it must have existed 
in the steam used by Regnault, and the steam tables must also be 
subject to identical corrections ; and, consequently, the percentage 
of theoretical performance of steam engines would be unchanged. 
It is then pointed out that, in the reduction of such of these 
results as have been published, use has been made of Regnault’s 
determination of the specific heat at constant pressure of steam 
gas (0°48) in a manner which is not consistent with the theory 
of thermodynamics. Thus, in Rankine’s notation, S, is the 
weight of steam per pound of fluid, and H, the total heat per 
pound from 0° C. to T,”, /, the heat required to raise water per 
pound, and H,, 4, T,, the corresponding values for saturated 
steam at the pressure after wire-drawing, and T,° the observed 
temperature after wire-drawing. The notation assumed for the 
equation of heat, neglecting incidental losses, is , 
S\(Hy =4) + 4, = Hy + 0°48 (T.° = T°) . . .. (1) 
Whereas, it has been proved by Rankine that the thermodynamic 
expression for the total heat in superheated steam at T.° C., 
provided it has reached the condition of steam gas, to which 
the 0°48 only applies, is 
C, + 0°48 (T.°— To) 
C,, being a constant, depends only on the temperature of the 
water, (T,°) from which the steam is produced, the value of 
which from o° C. is 606°7, approximately, as deduced by 
Rankine. Using Regnault’s formula for H,, the right member 
of equation (1) becomes 
606°5 + °305 T. + 0°48 (T,°-T.,) 
while the value by the thermodynamic formula is 
606'7 + 0°48 T,° 
which gives us the excess of heat over that assumed 
2+ 07175 Ty 
This excess, if T, were 100° C., is 17°7 thermal units, and if 
the initial steam pressure were 200 lbs. above the atmosphere, 
the latent heat being 467°5 thermal units, the percentage of | 
water it would evaporate, at boiling point, is 
77 
4675 
NO. 1412, VOL. 55 | 
92-5) Den Center 
| of photography, by M. Alphonse Berget. 
which is about as much as needs to be accounted for. It is also 
shown that, in order to render Rankine’s formula applicable 
to wire-drawing experiments, it is necessary that the wire- 
drawing should be continued till the steam is gaseous, whence 
arises the difficulty of securing that this state has been 
reached. This, however, may be secured by lowering the 
pressure gradually after wire-drawing, and so increasing the 
extent of wire-drawing while observing the temperature (T,’), 
which, after falling, will gradually become constant as the wire- 
drawing increases, and, when constant, will be a definite indica- 
tion of this gaseous state. The necessary conditions to ensuring 
accuracy are then considered, and, in conclusion, it is stated 
that a research to verify these conclusions has been commenced 
by Mr. J. H. Grindley, in the Engineering Laboratory of 
Owens College, Manchester. 
PARIS, 
Academy of Sciences, November 9.—M. A. Cornu in 
the chair.—On the composition of the fruits of Phawzx melano- 
carpa, by M. Aimé Girard. The average weight of the fruit 
was nearly 8 gr., 80 per cent. of which was edible. The 
analysis of the latter part showed that about one-half was 
soluble, the chief constituent being levulose (39 per cent.) ; no 
other sugar could be detected.—On the mode of formation of 
the sedimentary deposits of phosphate of lime, by M. A. Carnot. 
From an experimental study of the ratio of fluorine to phos- 
phorus in phosphates of various origin, and from the artificial 
production of such apatites by the action of solutions of fluorides 
upon bone, the conclusion is drawn that phosphatic deposits 
are of animal origin, the alkaline liquid resulting from the 
putrefaction of organic remains having the property of dis- 
solving calcium phosphate to a small extent, and depositing it 
again upon organic substances ina manner analogous to the 
petrifaction of wood. The fluorine must be supplied by the sea- 
water. Since fluorine had not been proved with certainty to 
exist in sea-water, a careful examination was made, and fluorine 
found in sea-water in amount corresponding to 1°69 gr. per 
cubic metre.—On a, method of steering aérostats, by M. L. 
Baudey.—On the distribution of motion in a homogeneous 
medium, and the formation of cyclones, by M. E. Leclére.— 
On the production of floods in the basin of the Seine, by M. H. 
Tarry.—Observations on the new Perrine comet (November 2, 
1896), made at the Paris Observatory, by M. G. Bigourdan.— 
Occultation of the Pleiades, of October 23, 1896 (Lyons Ob- 
servatory), by M. Ch. André.—Observations on the sun, made 
at the Lyons Observatory, during the third quarter of 1896, by 
M. J. Guillaume.—On a geometry of ruled space, by M. René 
de Saussure, —Linear forms of the divisors of x* + A, by M. P. 
Pépin.—On the resistance of bridges under the passage of 
periodic loads, especially of those provided against in the regu- 
lation of August 29, 1891, by M. Marcellin Duplaix.—On the 
compressibility of some gases at o° C., and near atmospheric 
pressure, by M. A. Leduc. With a view of determining the 
molecular v>lumes of gases at O° at corresponding pressures, a 
pressure of 1/76th of the critical pressure was chosen, so that 
the values fell between 35 and 113 centimetres of mercury. By 
means of a modified Regnault apparatus, the variations from 
Boyle’s law were measured in the cases of carbon dioxide, 
nitrous oxide, hydrogen chloride, ammonia, and sulphur di- 
oxide. —A method of studying the expansion of liquids by means 
Two balances of 
equal sensibility, with their planes of oscillation at right angles, 
carry two weight thermometers, one containing the liquid under 
examination, and the other mercury. A ray of light is reflected 
from two mirrors, one on each beam, and this records on a 
sensitive plate a curve analogous to Lissajou’s figures. This curve 
is the graphical representation of the expansion of the liquid.—On 
some abnormal cases of solubility, by M. Le Chatelier.—Action of 
aluminium chloride upon camphoric anhydride, by M. G. Blanc. 
By carrying out the reaction in presence of an inert solvent, such 
as chloroform, a new acid C,H, ,0, is obtained, the salts, ethers, 
and chloride of which are described.—On essence of roses, by 
MM. Eug. Charabot and G. Chiris. This essence appears to 
contain minute quantities of anether, to the presence of which 
in French essences the latter probably owe their more fragrant 
odour.—On a new ferment in the blood, by M. Hanrict. Under 
the name of lipase, a new ferment of blood serum is described, 
which is characterised by its power of saponifying fatty ethers. 
This ferment is destroyed by heating to 90° C.—On a chemical 
method of valuing commercial wheaten flours, by M. E. Fleurent. 
The gluten is shown to consist of two substances, to which the 
