496 
NATURE 
j 
[Marcu 25, 1897 
recent expedition is with regard to the extension of land and sea in 
the north polar region. The whole of the sea to the north of 
Siberia was very deep, in fact it formed a north polar basin filled 
with comparatively warm water, and it could be asserted with 
great certainty that the Pole itself must be situated in that deep 
sea basin. The fact that the ice was always easily drifting north, 
indicated that there could not be much land to the north of their 
route, because if there had been land it must have stopped the 
drift of the ice in that direction. There were, also, no land birds 
to be seen flying northwards, whereas if land existed to the north 
they would have been certain to have seen some birds of that 
kind. There might, however, be some small islands to the 
north, where the ice-drift closed in from time to time in order to 
get into the layers which were noticed. The oldest ice met 
with in the polar region was probably of five or six years of 
age. The ice was, on an average, from 10 feet to 12 feet 
deep. As to the temperature of the water of the polar sea, 
it was always found to be pretty constant. At the top there 
was a layer of about 100 fathoms thick, the temperature of which 
just rose above freezing point, then the temperature began to 
sink, and just before the bottom was reached it rose again. This 
fact clearly shows that warm water must run into the polar sea 
from the south. The warm Atlantic water comes into the sea 
from the Gulf Stream, and forms a w arm surface current there. 
That is perhaps the most important fact with reference to oceano- 
graphy which has resulted from Dr. Nansen’s expedition. Dr. 
Nansen concluded his remarks by saying that what is really 
wanted is not merely to reach the Pole, but more scientific ob- 
servations from the Arctic regions. He did not think it was 
difficult to reach the Pole itself. With enough dogs it was quite 
possible. If 200 dogs were taken, the Pole could certainly be 
reached ; but he did not think it was worth while, and he could not 
see the importance of it, for they would not bring back sufficient 
observations, and it would be a waste of time and labour. If 
they wanted scientific observations from the Arctic regions, there 
was no better plan than the one he adopted—of going into the ice. 
The ship was an excellent observatory ; it was possible to have 
all kinds of laboratories on board. If he started again, he would 
build a better ship than the Fray; and if a man were to spend 
five years in such a ship, he was certain to bring back observations 
that would pay him many times over. He would be possessed 
of rich material for forming a good idea of the physical conditions 
of the North Polar region. 
THE geometrical interpretation of complex quantity has 
hitherto been chiefly associated with the name of Argand ; but 
it would now appear that this mathematician had been antici- 
pated by a Norwegian named Caspar Wessel, who, on March 10 
1797, communicated to the Academy of Sciences of Copen- 
hagen a paper entitled, ‘*Om Directionens analytiske Beteg- 
ning~ (on the analytic representation of direction). Caspar 
Wessel was a land-surveyor, who attained some distinction in 
his profession, but appears never to have been recognised as 
a mathematician ; and this paper is remarkable both from being 
his only contribution to mathematical knowledge, and at the 
same time bearing distinct marks of mathematical genius. Not 
only did Wessel show how directed quantities could be repre- 
sented in two-dimensional space by expressions involving J/-1, 
but he also gave a theory of algebraic operations involving 
lines in three-dimensional space, thus anticipating Hamilton’s 
theory of quaternions by nearly fifty years. To commemorate 
the centenary of the publication of this important paper, a 
French translation has been issued by the Danish Royal 
Academy, with prefaces by MM. H. Valentiner and T.-N. 
Thiele. 
REFERRING to the plague in India, the Zavce¢ remarks that 
the reports are, on the whole, more hopeful and promising, those 
NO. 1430, VOL. 55] 
from Bombay city showing a decided improvement. The total 
plague returns for Bombay city up to the 11th inst. amount to 
9032 cases and 7546 deaths. The week’s mortality from all 
causes in Bombay was 1326, as compared with 1484 in the 
previous week ; and the returns for the whole Presidency since 
the outbreak of the plague up to the 6th inst. amount to 14,856 
cases and 12,204 deaths, It will be remembered that many 
persons were disposed to think that there was some connection 
between the outbreak of plague and the storage of grain, and 
Surgeon-Colonel Waters some time ago gave an interesting 
account of his researches into the origin of plague, in which he 
adverted to the rat murrain that had been noticed in several of 
the outbreaks of bubonic disease, and to the plausible hypothesis 
that the disease might be connected with something affecting 
the granaries and the storage of the cheaper varieties of grain 
and millet. Mr. Hankin reports, however, that he has examined 
a large number of specimens of grain and flour under various 
conditions, but has been unable to detect the plague microbe in 
any of them, and that his examination of weevils and of other 
parasitic insects has also been with negative results. M. Haff- 
kine has been busily occupied in developing a prophylactic 
and antitoxic serum. It is yet too early to pronounce any 
opinion on their efficacy, but the antitoxic curative serum has 
already been tried in many cases of plague with, so far, 
promising results. Dr. Yersin has prepared a stock of antitoxic 
serum, and we shall soon know whether the results obtained in 
India are confirmatory of those which were obtained, by others 
and himself, in China. 
THE Agricultural Research Association does good service by 
disseminating trustworthy and useful information on agricultural, 
subjects by means of scientific investigation. From the report, 
just received, we learn that the work done in 1896 was concerned 
chiefly with the cultivation of oats and the grass crop. With 
regard to the ‘‘ dressing” or selection of oats for seed, it has 
been proved by experiment that, contrary to what might have 
been anticipated, large seeds afford no ground for expectation of 
the production of large ultimate plants or heavier crops, nor do 
they secure any earlier germination. What they do secure is 
power to reach the surface though deeply deposited, and a 
stronger briard, which will enable the plants to withstand un- 
congenial conditions of soil or season at the early stage of 
growth. The subject was further followed up to find why a 
large seed does not necessarily tend to produce a large plant. 
By this inquiry the fact has been found, by an investigation, that 
the size and strength of the embryo plant within the seed does 
not bear any relation to the size of the seed; small seeds may 
often contain larger or stronger embryos than a large seed ; the 
extra size of the seed indicates merely the provision of extra food 
for the embryo. The production of a strong embryo probably 
depends rather on the parental influence, a circumstance which 
opens up an interesting subject that seems worthy of investiga- 
tion, and one which might be expected to give results of practical © 
value. Other work of the Committee refers to the proper time 
for harvesting oats, and the cultivation of suitable grasses. It is 
suggested that grass should lie longer than has hitherto been the 
practice. The Hon. Secretaries of the Association are :—Mr. 
Ranald Macdonald, Factor, Cluny Estates; Mr. John Milne, 
Mains of Laithers, Turriff. The Director of Research is Mr. 
Thomas Jamieson, 173 Union Street, Aberdeen. 
THE presentation of the Albert Medal of the Society of Arts. 
to Prof. D. E. Hughes, F.R.S., has induced our worthy con- 
temporary—/xventzon—to disinter from the past the early history 
of the microphone. This instrument was invented in December 
1877, and was first shown privately, in February 1878, to the 
officials of the Submarine Telegraph Company. The first 
demonstration of the discovery was made on May 2, 1878, a 
