NA TURE 



[A/ay t, 1884 



as media through which we may imbue the mind with 

 certain general and abstract ideas. If called upon to 

 define the scientific spirit, I should say that it was the 

 love of truth for its own sake. This definition carries 

 with it the idea of a love of exactitude — the more exact 

 we are the nearer we are to the truth. It carries with it 

 a certain independence of authority ; because, although an 

 adherence to authoritative propositions taught us by our an- 

 cestors, and which we regard as true,may,in a certain sense, 

 be regardedas a loveof truth, yet it ought rather to be called 

 a love of these propositions, irrespective of their truth. 

 The lover of truth is ready to reject every previous opinion 

 the moment he sees reason to doubt its exactness. This 

 particular direction of the love of truth will lead its pos- 

 sessor to pursue truth in every direction, and especially to 

 investigate those problems of society where the greatest 

 additions to knowledge may be hoped for. 



Scientific method we may define as simply generalised 

 common sense. I believe it was described by Clifford as 

 organised common sense. It differs from the method 

 adopted by the man of business, to decide upon the best 

 method of conducting his affairs, only in being founded 

 on a more refined analysis of the conditions of the pro- 

 blem. Its necessity arises from the fact that, when men 

 apply their powers of reason and judgment to problems 

 above those of every-day life, they are prone to lose that 

 sobriety of judgment and that grasp upon the conditions 

 of the case which they show in the conduct of their own 

 private affairs. Business offers us an example of the 

 most effectual elimination of the unfit and of " the sur- 

 vival of the fittest." The man who acts upon false 

 theories loses his money, drops out of society, and is no 

 longer a factor in the result. But there is no such method 

 of elimination when the interests of society at large are 

 considered. The ignorant theoriser and speculator can 

 continue writing long after his theories have been proved 

 groundless, and, in any case, the question whether he is 

 right or wrong is only one of opinion. 



I ask leave to introduce an illustration of the possi- 

 bilities of scientific method in the direction alluded to. 

 Looking at the present state of knowledge, of the laws of 

 wealth and prosperity of communities, we see a great re- 

 semblance to the scientific ideas entertained by mankind 

 at large many centuries ago. There is the same lack of 

 precise ideas, the same countless differences of opinion, 

 the same mass of meaningless speculation, and the same 

 ignorance of how to analyse the problem before us in the 

 two cases. Two or three centuries ago the modern 

 method of investigating nature was illustrated by Galileo, 

 generalised by Bacon, and perfected by Newton and his 

 contemporaries. A few fundamental ideas gained, a vast 

 load of useless rubbish thrown away, and a little know- 

 ledge how to go to work acquired, have put a new face 

 upon society. Look at such questions as those of the 

 tariff" and currency. It is impossible not to feel the need 

 of some revolution of the same kind which shall lead to 

 certain knowledge of the subject. The enormous differ- 

 ence of opinion which prevails shows that certain know- 

 ledge is not reached by the majority, if it is by any. We 

 find no fundamental principles on which there is a general 

 agreement. From what point must we view the problem 

 in order to see our way to its solution ? 



I reply, from the scientific standpoint. All such politi- 

 cal questions as those of the tariff and the currency are, 

 in their nature, scientific questions. They are not matters 

 of sentiment or feeling which can be decided by popular 

 vote, but questions of fact, as effected by the mutual action 

 and interaction of a complicated series of causes. The 

 only way to get at the truth is to analyse these causes into 

 their component elements, and see in what manner each 

 acts by itself, and how that action is modified by the 

 presence of the others : in other words, we must do what 

 Galileo and Newton did to arrive at the truths of Nature. 

 With this object in view, whatever our views of culture, 



we may let science, scientific method, and the scientific 

 spirit be the fundamental object in every scheme of a 

 liberal education. S. NEWCOMB 



THE KRAKATOA ERUPTION 1 



THE inquiry, instituted in consequence of a Govern- 

 ment resolution of October 4, 1883, into the nature, 

 the extent, and the consequences of the volcanic erup- 

 tions of Krakatoa, has led to various remarkable results 

 of which a short account is given here. A detailed re- 

 port is in course of preparation, but will not appear for 

 some months, as the making of numerous illustrative 

 maps and plates will take much time. The inquiry did 

 not extend solely to the islands of the Straits of Sunda, 

 but also to the coast countries of the Lampong districts, 

 Bantam and Batavia, which were partly or entirely de- 

 stroyed. In the Straits of Sunda the islands of Merak, 

 Toppershoedje, Dwars in den Weg (Thwart the Way), 

 Seboekoe, Sebesi, Lagoendi, Krakatoa, Taboean, Prince's 

 Island, the Monnikrotsen (the Monk's Rocks), and 

 Meeuwen Island (Mew's Island), were visited ; further, 

 the coast strip from Ketimbang to Kalianda, and inland 

 as far as Kesoegihan, besides the foot of the Radja Bassa ; 

 the coast of Hoeroen to Telok Betong, and the environs 

 of the capital ; the southern part of Semangka Bay (the 

 northern part was inaccessible through pumice-stone), 

 the kampoengs Tampang and Blimbing, near the Vlakken 

 Hoek, Java's First Point (Java Head), and the coasts of 

 Tjiringin and Anjer to Merak. The voyage, which lasted 

 seventeen days, was made by the hopperbarge (small 

 steamer) Kediri, commander 't Hoen, given for the 

 inquiry by the temporary chief of the Batavian Harbour 

 Works. About the causes of eruptions there is usually 

 not much to be said, yet in this case something has been 

 ascertained. Krakatoa, namely, lies with a few other 

 volcanoes on a rent or fissure in the crust of the earth 

 which runs across the Straits of Sunda, and of which I 

 indicated the probable existence for the first time three 

 years ago. Along such a fissure little shiftings of the 

 earth's crust are possible, by which a pressure is exercised 

 upon the molten substances below the crust. It is also 

 possible that along such a rent— however tightly closed 

 by the neighbouring stone-layers — the water may more 

 easily than elsewhere flow to the regions under the earth. 

 If this water comes in contact with the molten substances, 

 steam at high temperature and high pressure is formed, 

 and this steam may be considered as the chief motor of 

 most, if not all, volcanic eruptions. 



Many circumstances, therefore, combine to make erup- 

 tions take place in preference near fissures, provided water 

 (either rain or sea-water; can penetrate in sufficient quan- 

 tity. We must conclude from the 2co years' quietude of 

 the volcanoes in the Straits of Sunda that the water 

 affluence during that time was but small, and only became 

 larger within the last years. Now it happens that during 

 the last years a great many earthquakes took place along 

 this fissure, of which the lighthouse on "Java's First 

 Point " in particular suffered greatly. The most violent 

 earthquake took place September 1, 1SS0 ; the upper part 

 of the tower was rent, and had to be broken off after- 

 wards. These earthquakes were probably the result of 

 subterranean subsidences, and I think I may assume that 

 through those subsidences modifications took place along 

 the fissure through which the sea-water could ooze in 

 greater quantity than before. Within the three last years 

 the pressure of the steam formed became sufficiently 

 strong to force the lava, out of the much deeper-lying lava 

 strata, upwards through the crater of Krakatoa, and the 

 eruption took place when, at last, the violence of the 

 steam was enabled to force its way through the lava to 

 the crater and the surface. The steam carried with it a 



' Translation nf a Short Report en the Eruption of Krakatoa on August 

 26. 27, and 28, :S8j. 



