55o 



NA TURE 



{Oct. 2, 1884 



scribing the chemical changes produced by a large number of 

 micro-organisms, the author concluded that there is no break in 

 the < ' mtinuity of chemical functions between micro-organisms and 

 the higher forms of animal life. It is true there are apparently 

 certain sharp distinctions between them. The enormous fecundity 

 of micro-organisms and their tremendous appetites seem to 

 separate them from the higher orders of animals. But this dis- 

 tinct ion is only comparative. It must be borne in mind that an 

 animal like a sheep converts much of its food into carbonic 

 acid, hippuric acid, and water, thus utilising nearly the who! of 

 the potential energy, while the micro-organism as a rule utilises 

 only a small portion. Those micro-organisms which have been 

 chemically studied produce, like the higher animals, perfectly 

 definite chemical changes. The position of these organism- in 

 Nature is only just beginning to be appreciated. It may safely 

 be predicted thai there is no danger of their being spoiled by the 

 petting of sentimentalists, yet these lowly organisms will receive 

 much more attention in the future than they have done in the 

 past. 



Principal Dallinger referred to the attempted distinction 

 between the lower animal and vegetable forms. In following 

 out the life-history of certain monads he used a nutritive fluid 

 containing no albuminoid substances, but only mineral sails and 

 tartrate of ammonium. Organisms classed by Prof. Huxley as 

 animal were found to live in this mineral fluid. Bacteria of 

 forms which cannot be distinguished by the microscope have 

 very different physiological functions. These Bacteria can be 

 modifu-d physiologically, but not at all readily morphologically ; 

 by a s|o W change it is possible to completely reverse the condi- 

 tions of the environment of the Bacterium without changing its 

 form. It is most important to study the physiology of Bai teria. 



Dr. Macalister pointed out that the experiments made on the 

 conversion of the Bacillus of the hay infusion into the Bacillus 



anthracis had not been confirmed by 1 - e e: 



The germs of the Bacillus anthracii readily diffused themselves 

 through the air of the laboratory, and without the very greatest 

 care it was impossible to avoid contamination of the liquids with 

 1 rms. 



Prof. Dewar referred to the extraordinary behaviour of very 

 small quantities of peroxide of hydrogen on putrescible liquids. 

 One-hundredth of a per cent, of the peroxide perfectly preserved 

 many liquids, keeping them quite clear and without a trace of 

 any Bacteria. The conversion of sugar into anhydrous alcohol 

 and carbonic acid seemed to be unaccompanied by a thermal 

 change, 1 th an important question arises, Where 

 power which effects the change come from? Possibly, like 

 chlorophyll, the Bacteria absorb rays of radiant heat and light. 

 Dr, Engelman has studied the distribution of radiant enei in 

 rum of the sun and flames by the activity of the Bacteria 

 submitted to different parts of the spectrum. 



Sii Lyon Playfair regarded it as curious that the products 

 formed in the growth of the higher animals — namely, carbonic- 

 acid and urea — should be so much simpler than tie 

 by lower organisms. 



Complex Inorganic Acids, by Prof. Wolcott Gibbs. — This 

 research may be regarded as a series of generalisations ol the 

 1 la 3 of ;ilico-tungstates discovered by Marignac in 1S61, and of 

 the analogous class of phospho-molybdates studied by Peville. 

 Scheibler has described two distinct scries of phospho-tung- 

 states ; the author finds there are at least ten, the highest 

 he formula 24YV1 >,,l\,i i-,nH..O, the lowest the formula 

 6W< > :1 ,1',,05,6II. J 0, and that the phospho-molybdates are at 

 least equally numerous, and have a similar range. Corresponding 

 compounds containing arsenic oxide also exist. To generalise 

 these results the author replaced phosphoric oxide by vanadic 

 oxide and antimonic oxide, so as to form vanadio-tungstates and 

 antimonio-tnie. .ues, and th< com sponding compounds of molyb- 

 denum. Many of these salts are very beautiful. Probably the 

 greater number of oxides of the type R. : 5 form similar com- 

 pounds. A second series of complex acids contain two mole- 

 cules of the type RjC 5 , so that we have various phospho-vanadio- 

 tungstates and phospho-vanadio-molybdates. The generalisation 

 of the term Wl >. 01 Mol l 3 appears also possible, as the author 

 has prepared compounds in which sulphur and selenium replace 

 oxygen in WO. or Mo0 3 . Again, the author finds that phos- 

 phorous and hypopho | hon us acids enter into similar combina- 

 tions with tungstic and molybdic acids, and he has also prepared 

 compounds in which the methyl, ethyl, and. phenyl derivative . of 

 phosphorous and hypophosphorous acids occur. An attempt to 



prepare complex acids containing pyro-phosphoric acid failed, as 

 that acid quickly changed to the ortho-acid ; but with meta- 

 phosphoric acid the author succeeded in preparing several new 



'• pounds. The author has further shown that the group R.,0, 



may be replaced by R"J ).,, R'"C1 S — R" being a metal of "the 

 platinum group — and that the chlorine can be replaced by bro- 

 mine or iodine. The type of silico-tungstates is also capable of 

 generalisation, silica being replaced by a large number of similar 

 oxides, as, for instance, the oxides of selenium, tellurium, plati- 

 num. &c. As an instance of the extreme complexity of some of 

 these compound acids, the author gave the body 6oW0 3 ,3P s 5 , 

 V s O s ,V0 2 , iSBaO, + I5oAg. This body has the enormous 

 molecular weight of 20,066. In conclusion the author stated 

 that in formulating certain compounds containing \ ".,< i. he found 

 much similar expressions resulted when a part of the V.,0 5 was 

 supposed to have the structure (V„0. 2 )0.„ (V 2 2 ) replacing W 

 or Mo. 



On the Incomplete Combustion of Gases, by II. B. Dixon. — 

 The author gave a thumiai the work he had done in continua- 

 tion of the researches ofBunsen, E. von Meyer, llorstmann, and 

 other chemists, on the division of oxygen when exploded with 

 excess of hydrogen and carbonic oxide. The following are the 

 general conclusions arrived at: — (1) No alteration per alum 

 occurs in the ratio of the products of combustion. The ex- 

 periments made completely e mfirm Horstmann's conclusion : 

 Bunsen's earlier experiments are vitiated by the presence of 

 aqueous vapour in the eudiometer. (2) A dry mixture of car- 

 bonic oxide and oxygen does not explode when an electric spark 

 is passed through it. The union of carbonic oxygen is effected 

 indirectly by steam. A mere trace of steam renders the ad- 

 mixture of carbonic oxide and oxygen explosive. flu- -team 

 undergoes a series of alternate reductions and oxidations acting 

 as a "carrier of oxygen " to the carbouic oxide. With a very 

 small quantity of steam the oxidation of carbonic oxide takes 

 place slowly ; as the quantity of steam is increased the rapidity 

 of explosion increases. (3) When a mixture of dry carbonic 

 oxide and hydrogen is exploded with a quantity of oxygen in- 

 sufficient for complete combustion, the ratio of the carbonic acid 

 to the steam formed depend, upon tin shape of the vessel and 

 the pressure under which the gases are fired. By continually 

 the initial pressure a point is reached where no further 

 increase in the pressure affects the products of the reaction. At 

 this critical pressure the result was found to be inde- 

 pendent of the length of the column of gases exploded. The 

 larger the quantity of oxygen used, the lower the "critical 

 was found to be. (4) When dry mixtures of carbonic 

 oxide and hydrogen in varying proportions are exploded above 

 their critical pressures with oxygen insufficient for complete 

 combustion, an equilibrium is established between two opposite 

 chemical changes represented by the equations : — 

 (I.) CO +1I..O = CO., + 11... 

 (II.) CO, + R, = CO' + II„0. 

 At the end of the reaction the product of the carbonic oxide and 

 steam molecules i, equal to the product of the 1 arbonic acid and 

 hydrogen molecules multiplied by a coefficient of affinity. This 

 result agrees with Horstmann's conclusion. But Horstmann 

 considers the coefficient to vary with the relative mass of oxygen 

 taken. (5) A small difference in the initial temperature at which 

 the gases are fired makes a considerable difference in the pro- 

 ducts of the reaction. This different e 1 'lie- to the condensation 

 of steam by the sides of the vessel during the explosion, and it 

 removal from the .phereoffi '.'chemical 



change. When the at exploded at an initial temperature, 



sufficiently high to p event any condensation of si earn during the 

 1 1 'In re e hi. the 1 oefficienl of affinity is found to be 



constant whatever the quantity of oxygen used — provided only 

 the quantity of hydrogen is more than double the quantity ol 

 oxygen. (6) The presence of an inert gas. such as nitrogen, by 

 diminishing the intensity of the reaction, favours the formation 

 of carbonic acid in preference to steam. When the hydrogen 

 taken is less than double the oxygen, the excess of oxygen can 

 not react with any of the three other gases present — carbonic 

 oxide, carbonic acid, and steam, hut has to wait until an equal 

 volume of steam is reduced to hydrogen by the carbonic oxide. 

 The excess of inert oxygen has the same effect as inert nitrogen 

 in favouring the formation of carbonic acid. The variations in 

 the coefficient of affinity found by Horstmann with different 

 quantities of oxygen are due partly to this cause, but chiefly to 

 the varying amounts of steam condensed by the cold eudiometer 

 during the reaction in different experiments. (7) As a general 



