May 11, 1899] 
My object is merely to show you how far at the end of the 
century we have advanced in our knowledge of the mode of 
action of carbon, and I trust it will be evident that the progress 
is remarkable. We know that even in solid iron the carbon 
atom must push and thrust with great vigour, for we can 
measure the ‘‘ osmotic pressure’ the carbon atom exerts, and, 
as has just been shown, we can even picture the mode of the 
atomic grouping in the molecule. 
I can only just sum up the evidence as to the occurrence of 
molecular change in iron. To Gore, and to Barrett, we owe 
the investigation of the nature of a fact which had long been 
well known to smiths, that iron on cooling from a bright red 
heat suddenly emits a glow. We now know that as steel cools 
down there may be at least six points at which molecular change 
occurs, accompanied by evolution of heat. 
In a series of classical papers of which we are justly proud, 
for many of them have been communicated to this Institute, our 
member, Osmond, has shown what is the significance of some 
of these points, and has won an enduring reputation. We 
measure and record them photographically as readily as if they 
were barometric variations. It is known that three points occur 
in the purest electro-iron yet prepared. Two points are con- 
nected with the magnetic permeability of iron. One point at least 
is due to the power iron has of dissolving carbon. In some cases, 
two points occur far below a red heat, and appear to be due to the 
presence of hydrogen. Moreover, the molecular condition of 
steel cooled from an intense white heat is not the same as that 
of steel which has just been melted. To carry further the 
evidence as to the effect of an intense heat on iron in a vacuum 
is the task I have in prospect during my presidency of the 
Institute. I may, however, express my agreement with 
Lockyer’s view that the evidence afforded by the atmosphere of 
the stars shows that our terrestrial iron is a very complex form 
of matter. 
We must not lose sight of those relations of carbon and iron 
which involve physical equilibrium. Even the astonishing 
associations of iron and carbonic oxide in the volatile gaseous 
compound with which the distinguished name of Mond is con- 
nected affords a triumph of dynamic chemistry. It is generally 
supposed that ozone is dissociated at 160° C., but Dewar has 
devised a beautiful experiment to prove that ozone has two 
centres of stability, and one of these is near the melting point 
of platinum. It seems to be the same with the relation of 
hydrogen and iron. We have recently learned that iron and 
hydrogen appear to be completely dissociated at 800° C., and 
yet the same iron heated to some higher temperature, say 
1200° C., will still yield hydrogen. 
Let us suppose that Black, Cort, and Bergman were with us 
again, and had reviewed the present state uf our knowledge and 
the work accomplished in the century. Let us also suppose that 
they could go to Sheffield and see an armour-plate rolled and 
finished for service, and then, visiting our Institute, hear the 
best explanation we could offer of all the incidental phenomena 
they had witnessed. Which would they consider the more 
advanced, our practice or our theory? They would probably 
hesitate to tell us, but would offer warm congratulations on the 
immediate prospect of the establishment of a National Physical 
Laboratory, in which investigations as to the properties of iron 
and steel will be continued. 
THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE. 
THE annual meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute was held 
on May 4 and 5 at the Institution of Civil Engineers. The 
chair was occupied at the beginning of the proceedings by Mr. 
E. P. Martin, the retiring president. The report of the Council 
was read by the secretary, Mr. Bennett Brough, and showed 
that during the year 98 new members had been elected, and 
that the Institute had maintained its prosperous and satisfactory 
condition. Sir William Roberts-Austen then took the presi- 
dential chair, and delivered an inaugural address, which is 
printed in an abridged form in another part of this issue. A vote 
of thanks to the president for his address was proposed by Sir 
Bernhard Samuelson, seconded by Sir William H. White, and 
carried by acclamation. 
The first paper read was by Mr. H. Bauerman on the Gel- 
livare iron mines, the important mineral region situated in 
67° 11’ North latitude and 20° 11’ East longitude. The paper 
NO. 1541, VOL. 60] 
NATURE 
43 
gave a detailed geological description of the mineral deposits, 
and formed a valuable supplement to previous descriptions of 
these mines. In the discussion which followed, Mr. W. Whit- 
well pointed out the importance of this Swedish source of supply 
in view of the approaching exhaustion of the Spanish deposits, 
and Mr. H. G. Turner remarked on the similarity of some 
extensive magnetite deposits in Southern India. 
Mr. A. P. Head read a paper on tilting open-hearth furnaces 
which are coming into use in the United States, and present a 
substantial advance in metallurgy likely to have far-reaching 
effects in the future of the relative positions of the Bessemer and 
open-hearth processes. An interesting discussion followed, in 
which Mr. Wellman, of Chicago, and Mr. R. M, Daelen, of 
Diisseldorf, took part. 
Prof. Henry Louis then described a dipping needle he had 
devised for use in exploring for iron ore deposits, which pre- 
sented decided advantages over the instruments described by 
Mr. B. H. Brough in 1887, and by Prof. Nordenstrom last 
year. 
A paper by Prof. J. Wiborgh, of Stockholm, on the use of hot 
blast in the Bessemer process, was then taken as read. In this 
the author urged the advantages that would be derived from 
the use of the hot blast for small converters and for the basic 
Bessemer process. 
The meeting then adjourned until May 5, when a paper by 
Prof. J. O. Amold and Mr. A. McWilliam on the diffusion of 
elements in iron was read. An animated discussion followed, 
in which Mr. Stead, Mr. Hadfield, Mr. Harbord, Dr. Stansfield 
and Prof. Louis took part. 
A voluminous paper by Baron Jiiptner von Jonstorff, on the 
solution theory of iron, was taken as read. In two previous 
communications he sought to apply the laws of solution to iron 
and steel, and in this third paper he carries the research further. 
He finds that carbon is dissolved as such in pure iron by a 
sufficiently high temperature. The molecule of the dissolved 
carbon between 1600° and 1300° C. consists of two atoms. It 
increases with decreasing temperature, and at 1150° C. nearly 
equal amounts of two and three atom molecules are present in 
the solution. At.a still lower temperature, there is in the 
solution, besides a certain amount of free carbon increasing with 
the content of carbon present, iron carbide. At first the latter 
remains in solution with the free carbon (austenite). If, how- 
ever, its quantity increases above a certain amount, the alloy 
separates into two parts. In the one the free carbon prevails, 
in the other the carbide of iron (martensite) prevails. With 
falling temperature, the amount of the iron carbide increases, as 
also does the martensite, whilst the quantity of the austenite 
decreases until at length only martensite is present. 
Mr. Enrique Disdier contributed a paper on the use of blast- 
furnace and coke-oven gases, in which he urged that coke-oven 
gases should be heated by blast-furnace gases and the oven gases 
used for driving gas engines. By the adoption of this method 
of utilising the gases, the cost of pig-iron would, he asserts, be 
reduced by 5s. 53a. per ton. In the discussion, Mr. James 
Riley expressed the opinion that the author had worked out his 
case well, but considerable difficulties would have to be sur- 
mounted before his theory was put into practice. Mr. Hugh 
Savage described the progress that had been made in Belgium 
in the use of blast-furnace gases as motive power. Mr. Charles 
Wood and Mr. Enoch James anticipated difficulty from the dust 
in the gases. 
Mr. Bertrand S. Summers, of Chicago, contributed a lengthy 
paper on theories and facts relating to cast-iron and steel. In 
the discussion, Mr. R. A. Hadfield expressed the opinion that 
there was a demand among electricians for material of high 
permeability and of low cost, and he thought that the author 
had done much to render this possible. Mr. W. Mordy also 
discussed the paper from the electrician’s point of view. 
The last paper on the list was from the pen of the great 
Russian metallurgist, Mr. D. Tschernoff. It described a con- 
struction of blast-furnace in which gas is used in lieu of solid 
fuel, and in which iron or steel may be produced direct from 
the ore. 
The usual votes of thanks were carried, and the meeting, 
which throughout was largely attended and most successful, was 
declared at an end. On the evening of May 4, the annual 
dinner was held at the Hotel Cecil, and on May 5 the members 
were entertained by Sir William and Lady Roberts-Austen at 
their residence in the Royal Mint. 
