of conducting the affairs and guarding the interests of the State.” 
Would that all ministers would realise and act upon the great. 
truth, so clearly and pithily expressed. Mr. Ellery contributes 
__ monthly a very valuable and interesting set of ‘* Astronomical 
Notes,” in which he gives all the details in a tabular form neces- 
sary to find out the positions, on the first of each month, of the 
planets, nebulze, clusters, and double and other peculiar stars. 
We hope the journal will have all the success it well deserves. 
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES 
. LONDON 
Royal Society, Jan. 30.— Prof. George Busk, vice-president, 
in the chair. The following communications were read :— 
“Note on the Origin of Bacteria, and on their Relation to the 
Process of Putrefaction.” By Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S. 
In his now celebrated memoir of 1862, M. Pasteur asserted 
and claimed to have proved (1) that the putrefaction occurring 
in certain previously boiled fluids after exposure to the air was 
due to the contamination of the fluids by Bacteria, or their 
germs, which had before existed in the atmosphere; and 
(2) that all the organisms found in such fluids have been 
derived more or less immediately from the reproduction of 
germs which formerly existed in the atmosphere. 
The results of a long series of experiments have convinced me 
that both these views are untenable. 
In the first place, it can be easily shown that living Bacteria, 
or their germs, exist very sparingly in the atmosphere, and that 
solutions capable of putrefying are not commonly infected from 
this source. 
It has now been very definitely ascertained that certain fluids 
exist which, after they have been boiled, are incapable of giving 
birth to Bacteria, although they continue to be quite suitable for 
the support and active multiplication of any such organisms as 
may have been purposely added to them. Amongst such fluids 
I may name that now commonly known as ‘‘ Pasteur’s solution,” 
and also one which I have myself more commonly used, con- 
sisting of a simple aqueous solution of neutral ammonic tartrate 
and neutral sodic sulphate.* When portions of either of these 
fluids are boiled and poured into superheated flasks, they will 
continue quite clear for many days, or even for weeks—that is 
to say, although the short and rather narrow neck of the flask 
_ remains open the fluids will not become turbid, and no Bacteria 
are to be discovered when they are submitted to microsco- 
_pical examination. 
But in order to show that such fluids are still thoroughly 
favourable media for the multiplication of Bacteria, all that is 
necessary is to bring either of them into contact with a glass 
rod previously dipped into a fluid containing such organisms. 
In about thirty-six hours after this has been done (the tempera- 
ture being about 80° F.), the fluid, which had hitherto remained 
clear, becomes quite turbid, and is found, on examination with 
the microscope, to be swarming with Bacteria.t | 
Facts of the same kind have also been shown by Dr. Burdon 
Sanderson} to hold good for portions of boiled ‘* Pasteur’s 
solution.” Air was even drawn through sucha fluid daily for a 
time, and yet it continued free from Bacteria. 
Evidence of this kind has already been widely accepted as 
justifying the conclusion that living Bacteria or their germs are 
either wholly absent from, or, at most, only very sparingly 
distributed through the atmosphere. The danger of infection 
from the atmosphere having thus been got rid of and shown to 
be delusive, I am now able to bring forward other evidence 
_ tending to show that the first Bacteria which appear in many 
boiled infusions (when they subsequently undergo putrefactive 
changes) are evolved de vovo in the fluids themselves. These 
experiments are moreover so simple, and may be so easily 
repeated, that the evidence which they are capable of supplying 
lies within the reach of all. 
That boiling the experimental fluid destroys the life of any 
Bacteria or Bacteria germs pre-existing therein is now almost uni- 
versally admitted. It may moreover be easily demonstrated. 
Tf a portion of “ Pasteur’s solution” be purposely infected with 
boiled Bacteria and subsequently boiled for two or three minutes, it 
_ will continue (if left in the same flask) clear for an indefinite 
* In the proportion of 10 grains of the former and 3 of the latter to r ounce 
eo Ape ae £ F ‘ 
© Modes of Origin of Lowes anist 5 * 
agai Reyedide the Medical Officer of he Privy’ Council (1871), 
NATURE 
275 
period ; whilst a similarly infected portion of the same fluid, not 
subsequently boiled, will rapidly become turbid. Precisely 
similar phenomena occur when we operate with the neutral fluid 
which I have previously mentioned; and yet M. Pasteur has 
ventured to assert that the germs of Bacteria are not destroyed in 
neutral or slightly alkaline fluids which have been merely raised 
to the boiling-point.* 
Eyen M. Pasteur, however, admits that the germs of Bacteria 
and other allied organisms are killed in slightly acid fluids which 
have been boiled for a few minutes ; so that there is a perfect 
unanimity of opinion (amongst those best qualified to judge) as 
to the destructive effects of a heat of 212° F. upon any Bacteria 
or Bacteria germs which such fluids may contain. 
_ Taking such a fluid, therefore, in the form of a strong filtered 
infusion of turnip, we may place it after ebullition in a super- 
heated flask with the assurance that it contains no living orga- 
nisms. Having ascertained also by our previous experiments 
with the boiled saline fluids that there is no danger of infection 
by Sacteria from the atmosphere, we may leave the rather 
narrow mouth of the flask open, as we did in these experiments. 
But when this is done, the previously clear turnip infusion in- 
variably becomes turbid in one or two days (the temperature 
being about 70° F.), owing to the presence of myriads of 
Bacteria. 
Thus if we take two similar flasks, one of which contains a 
boiled ‘‘ Pasteur’s solution,” and the other a boiled turnip infu- 
sion, and if we place them beneath the same bell-jar, it will be 
found that the first fluid remains clear and free from Bacteria for 
an indefinite period, whilst the second invariably becomes turbid 
in one or two days. 
What is the explanation of these discordant results? We 
have a right to infer that all pre-existing life has been destroyed 
in each of the fluids; we have proved also that such fluids are 
not usually infected by Bacteria derived from the air—in this 
very case, in fact, the putrescible saline fluid remains pure, al- - 
though the organic infusion standing by its side rapidly putrifies, 
We can only infer, therefore, that whilst the boiled saline solu- 
tion is quite incapable of engendering Bacteriat, such organisms 
are able to arise de wove in the boiled organic infusion. 
Although this inference may be legitimately drawn from such 
experiments as I have referred to, fortunately it is confirmed and 
strengthened by the labours of many investigators who have 
worked under the influence of much more stringent conditions, 
and in which closed vessels of various kinds have been 
employed. + 
Whilst we may therefore infer (1) that the putrefaction which 
occurs in many previously boiled fluids when exposed to the air 
is not due to a contamination by germs derived from the atmo- 
sphere, we have also the same right to conclude (2) that in many 
cases the first organisms which appear in such fluids have arisen 
de nove, rather than by any process of reproduction from pre- 
existing forms of life. 
Admitting, therefore, that Aacteria are ferments capable of 
initiating putrefactive changes, I am a firm believer also in the 
existence of not-living ferments under the influence of which 
putrefactive changes may be initiated in certain fluids--changes 
which are almost invariably accompanied by a new birth of 
living particles capable of rapidly developing into Bacteria. 
‘©On Just Intonation in Music ; with a description of a new 
Instrument for the easy control of all Systems of Tuning cther 
than the ordinary equal Temperament.” By R. H. M. 
Bosanquet. : 
The object of this communication is to place the improved 
systems of,tuning within the reach of ordinary musicians ; for this 
purpose the theory and practice are reduced to their simplest form:- 
A notation is described, adapted to use with ordinary written music. 
by which the notes to be performed are clearly distinguished. 
The design of a key-board is described, by which any system 
of tuning, except the ordinary equal temperament, can be con- 
trolled, if only the fifths of the system be all equal. The design 
is on a symmetrical principle, so that all passages and combioa- 
sions of notes are performed with the same handling, in what- 
ever key they occur. The theory of the construction of scales 
is then developed, jand a diagram is given, from,which the characs 
* How unwarrantable such a conclusion appears to be, I have elsewhere 
endeavoured to show. See “ Beginnings of Life,” 1872, vol. i. pp. 326-333, 
and pp. 372-399- P= % : 
+ See * Beginnings of Life,” vol. ii. p. 35, and vol. i. p. 463. 
{ See a recent communication by Prof, Burdon Sanderson, in NATURE 
January 9. 
