NOVEMBER 2, I916| 
‘Tue Orionip SHOWER OF 1916.—These October 
meteors were fairly well seen this year between Octo- 
ber 20 and 25 at Bristol. There were two showers, 
one at g2°+15°, the true Orionids, and a richer one 
at g8°+14°, near y Geminorum. These results ap- 
_ pear to substantiate observations made in 1900 and 
1903 at Bristol, when the Geminids exhibited greater 
activity than the Orionids. The two showers, lying 
so near together, are very liable to be confused; in 
fact, in some cases it is impossible to say to which 
_ radiant the meteors are conformable, 
Of the other showers belonging to this usually 
prolific meteoric epoch, only a few of well-pronounced 
character were visible this year. There were, 
however, some slow meteors from a sharply defined 
radiant at 72°+66°, and some very swift, streaking 
meteors from a point at 121°+43>. Several of the 
true Orionids, observed on October 20, were recorded 
at two stations, and their real paths have been com- 
puted. 
ULTRA-VIOLET RapDIATION FROM THE Sun.—Prof. 
Birkeland has recently given an account of some 
observations of the zodiacal light, and of the registra- 
tion of the ultra-violet radiation of the sun (Cairo Sci. 
Journ., vol. viii., p. 287). The most effective rays of 
the zodiacal light appear to have a wave-length of 
about 3200 A.U. and under, so that, in attempts to 
obtain photographs, lenses of quartz, or mirrors of 
Mach’s metal (67 Al+33 Mg) or of nickel, should be 
employed. Regarding the zodiacal light as a mani- 
festation of the general electrical activity of the sun, 
Prof. Birkeland was led to investigate the ultra-violet 
radiation of the sun itself by the use of a filter con- 
sisting of a silver film which was opaque to visible 
light. Sunbeams transmitted through such a -film 
were received by a photo-cell and registered in the 
usual manner. Variations of intensity were observed, 
and there was some slight evidence of a relation to 
changes in horizontal magnetic intensity.. While 
allowing that some of the observed variations of the 
ultra-violet intensity were probably due to atmospheric 
differences, Prof. Birkeland finds reason to believe that 
Variations also arise through real changes in the elec- 
trical state of the sun. The possibility of extending 
such observations to stars and planets by the use of 
large concave mirrors, say 4 metres in diameter, is 
Suggested. A new analysis of celestial bodies. giving 
information as to their general electrical states, might 
thus be founded. 
THE SOIL SURVEY OF WISCONSIN.} 
FOLLOWING the lead set by the American Bureau 
of Soils, the State of Wisconsin has arranged for a 
soil survey, and is publishing the results in a series 
of attractive booklets, well provided with maps, dia- 
grams, and illustrations. First of all, there was issued 
in 1911 the so-called ‘‘ Reconnaissance Soil Survey of 
Part of North-West Wisconsin,” in which a general 
account was given of the geology, climate, soil, and 
agriculture of the area. This has now been followed 
by more detailed accounts of the various counties. It 
is proposed to complete the work by issuing a series 
of bulletins dealing with the management of the 
different types of soil, and on the 1-in. maps issued 
with these reports the various soil types are so clearly 
defined that the farmer would have no difficulty in 
locating his land, and so discerning which particular 
bulletin would give him advice as to cropping and 
management. 
The region lies wholly within the great Mississippi 
valley, and its main topographical feature is the rela- 
1 Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey: Bulletins 28-32 
Soil Series, Nos. 2-6), and Bulletins 37-40 (Soil Series, Nos. 7-10). 
NO. 2453, VOL. 98] 
NATURE 
177 
tively level or gently sloping surface of the land. Like 
other parts of the valley, it is an undulating plain 
into which lesser valleys have been cut by the rivers 
and streams. 
The underlying rocks belong to the Cambrian or 
pre-Cambrian systems, and include crystalline rocks, 
sandstone, and limestone (mainly magnesian lime- 
stone). But on the whole the soils are not derived 
from the rocks immediately below them. Upon the 
broad uplands are extensive deposits of Glacial drift 
which in many cases retain the general forms left by 
the great ice-sheets that invaded this region. The 
lakes are here intimately related in origin to the 
Glacial deposits. There are also extensive wind 
deposits of loess over large portions of the uplands. 
In many of the valleys are thick deposits of loose sand 
and gravel, which assume the form of terraces. 
The climate is not influenced by the Great Lakes, 
but it is by the storms that move eastward along the 
Canadian border and those that drift up the Missis- 
sippi valley from the south-west. As in other parts 
of the northern Mississippi valley, extremes of tem- 
perature prevail, the summer being warm, with abun- 
dant rainfall, and the winter cool and relatively dry. 
The mean temperature of the summer months is about 
65°-70° F.; in January and February about 10° F.; 
the extremes range from about 105° F. in the summer 
to —48° F. in winter. 
Originally the land was covered with hardwood and 
pine, the latter being especially abundant on the sandy 
lands along the rivers. Much of this still remains, 
and there is considerable land available for agricultural 
settlement. Only in the west of the area do the thinly 
wooded and prairie lands occur. 
The first settlers after the explorers and fur-traders 
were lumbermen, and their way into the country was 
by boat on the Chippewa River. But fifty or sixty 
years ago the agricultural settlement began, and now 
all the ordinary crops are raised in quantity, oats 
being the most important cereal, followed by maize, 
barley, and wheat. Among the special crops culti- 
vated in certain districts are potatoes, sugar-beets, 
tobacco, peas, and maize for canning. Dairying is a 
particularly important industry; and it has further 
given rise to the well-known researches of Woll om 
feeding problems, and of Babcock and Russell on the 
composition of milk and the estimation of fat. 
Typical analyses are given of the various soil types; 
.as usual in the States, they are almost wholly mechan- 
ical analyses, only very few chemical data being given. 
In studying the results it must be remembered that 
the terms have very different meanings from those 
assigned to them in this country. The substances 
indicated by the analysis owe their properties to their 
sizes, and therefore the names given to them are 
intended simply to define the diameters of the par- 
ticles, but unfortunately no international agreement 
has yet been reached, and hence the same name is 
used in different countries for wholly different-sized 
particles. Thus the terms have the following mean- 
ings in American and British surveys respectively :— 
Mean diameter of particles, mm. 
United States Great Britain 
Fine gravel ... 2 -I . Above r 
Coarsesand ... I -O'5 cm TP 0 
Medium sand ... 05 -0'25 Not used 
Fine sand... ... 0°25-O10 O'2 -0'4 
Very fine sand... 0°10-07'05 Not used 
Silt... sis, «0. (O'O5-O1005 4... O'04=0'01 
Fine silt ... Not used 0’0I-0'002 
Clay.cas Below o'005 ... Below o'002 
Direct comparison with British soils is therefore 
impossible, a circumstance much to be regretted, as in 
