NA TURE 



[April 20. 1899 



From these experiments, the results of which were sub- 

 sequently mapped in relation to the various heat-levels 

 indicated by solar phenomena, 1 drew the following con- 

 clusions in 1879 :— 



" I think it is not too much to hope that a careful study 

 of such maps, showing the results already obtained, or to 

 be obtained, at varying; temperatures, controlled by 

 observations of the conditions under which changes are 

 brought about, will, if we accept the idea that various 

 dissociations of the molecules present in the solid are 

 brought about by different stages of heat, and then 

 reverse the process, enable us to determine the mode of 

 evolution by which the molecules vibrating in the atmo- 

 spheres of the hottest stars associate into those of which 

 the solid metal is composed. I put this suggestion for- 

 ward with the greater confidence, because I see that 

 help can be got from various converging lines of work." 



Calcium. 



In 1S76 I produced evidence that the working 

 hypothesis that the molecular grouping of calcium 

 which gives a spectrum having its principal line at 4226-9 

 is nearly broken up in the sun, and quite broken up in 

 the spark, explained the facts which are that the low 

 temperature line loses its importance and practically dis- 

 appears from the spectrum of the sun, in which H and K 

 are by far the strongest lines.' 



I summed up the facts regarding calcium as follows : ^ 

 " We have the blue line differentiated from H and K by 

 its thinness in the solar spectrum while they are thick, 

 and by its thickness in the arc while they are thin. We 

 have it again differentiated from them by its absence in 

 solar storms in which they are almost universally seen, 

 and, finally, by its absence during eclipses, while the H 

 and K lines have been the brightest seen or photo- 

 graphed." 



I afterwards attempted to carry the matter further by 

 photographing the spectra of sun-spots. In all cases H 

 and K lines were seen reversed over the spots, just as 

 Young saw them at Sherman, while the blue calcium 

 line was not reversed.^ The oldest of these photo- 

 graphs which has been preserved bears the date April 

 I, iSSt. 



The experimental results in the case of calcium, there- 

 fore, followed suit with those obtained from iron and 

 magnesium, and indicated that the cause of the inversion 

 of intensities in the lines of a substance under different 

 circumstances is due to the varying degrees of dis- 

 sociation brought about by different temperatures. 



Both in the case of iron, magnesium and calcium the 

 high temperature lines involved are not seen at all at 

 lower temperatures, and even in the case of calcium, 

 when photographic exposure of 100 hours' duration have 

 been employed. It should be sufficiently obvious to 

 everybody then that temperature alone is in question. 



Finally, then. The similar changes in the spectra of 

 certain elements, changes observed in laboratory, sun and 

 stars are simply and sufficiently explained on the 

 hypothesis of dissociation. If we reject this, so far no 

 other explanation is forthcoming which coordinates and 

 harmonises the results obtained along the different lines 



of work. NORM.W LOCKVER. 



HIGHER COMMERCIAL EDUCATION AND 

 THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. 



OUR knowledge of w;hat is needed for the improve- 

 ment of commercial education has undoubtedly 

 been amplified and better defined by the action of the 

 London Chamber of Commerce and of the Technical 

 Education Hoard of the London County Council. The 

 important conference held in June last at the Guildhall 



• Rdv. .^m. I'rx., vol. xxiv. p. 35s. - IhU., vol. xxviii. p. 171. 

 » /#/./.. vol. xxxvi. p. ,44. 



NO. 1538, VOL. 59] 



settled certain points beyond further controversy, and 

 cleared the way for a new departure in those directions 

 in which improvement is practicable and possible. The 

 "Summary of Results" published by the Chamber will 

 serve as a useful guide to educational authorities desirous 

 of adapting school teaching to the requirements of our 

 mercantile classes. The special Committee, appointed in 

 May 1897 by the Technical Education Board, were 

 actively engaged during the greater part of the year 1898 

 in taking evidence from merchants, bankers, teachers, 

 and organisers of commercial classes, and their valuable 

 report, recently published, gives some interesting ex- 

 tracts from the evidence of the expert witnesses they 

 consulted, together with their own conclusions and recom- 

 mendations. The report also contains a summary of 

 the notices, previously published in various other reports, 

 of the facilities provided in foreign countries for 

 commercial education of different grades. 



For many years there has been a growing feeling in 

 this country, that the mercantile classes are placed at 

 a disadvantage in competition with their foreign neigh- 

 bours, owing to the absence of any specialised schools 

 of commerce, such as exist in other parts of Europe. 

 The reports of our consuls abroad went to show, that 

 in the distant markets of the world agencies were being 

 established with continental manufacturing firms, and 

 that England was being gradually driven to the wall, in 

 consequence of the greater activity, and the special 

 aptitudes of commercial travellers, representing mer- 

 cantile firms in Germany, Belgium, and Switzerland. It 

 was also shown, that owing to their special business 

 qualifications and to their knowledge of foreign lan- 

 guages, foreigners were preferentially employed in busi- 

 ness houses in this country, and it was generally assumed, 

 that although there might be other causes of an in- 

 dustrial and economic character, which helped this 

 result, the defects of our educational system were mainly 

 responsible for the gradual displacement in many im- 

 portant markets of English wares for those produced in 

 other countries. 



It is possible there may have been some exaggeration 

 in the facts on which these conclusions were based ; but 

 there is no doubt that a strong a priori case for inquiry 

 was established, and the report of the London County 

 Council, and of the conference at the Guildhall, supple- 

 mented by further evidence from our consuls, and from 

 other persons who have independently investigated the 

 subject, has shown the extent to which foreign nations 

 have benefited by their special schools, and the directions 

 in which improvements may be looked for in our own 

 methods. A very important item of evidence was fur- 

 nished by Mr. Powell in his consular report on this subject 

 of November 189S, which has undoubtedly modified the 

 views of some of iiur educational reformers. Mr. Powell 

 brought into prominence the fact, that the alleged 

 pre-eminence of Germany was in no way due to her 

 commercial schools ; but that the movement, now in 

 progress, for developing commercial education had fol- 

 lowed, and had not preceded the rapid advance in her 

 industrial operations. The wide publication of this fact 

 has been useful in directing attention to other causes 

 than the absence of special commercial schools in this 

 country, for the CN:planation of the undoubted ability of 

 German clerks .mU commercial agents to succeed where 

 Englishmen too often fail. The inquiry instituted last 

 year will serve to prevent the repetition of vague state- 

 ments about the comparative excellence of commercial 

 schools abroad, and shows the extent of the changes that 

 are needed in our present educational system to give 

 us all the advantages that commerce can be expected 

 to gain from special schools or new methods of in- 

 struction. 



The recommendations in the report of the London 

 County Council are in general agreement with the con- 



