May 20, 1886] 
NATURE 
Be 
rotation. They are based upon a hydrodynamical investi- 
gation by Dr. Jukowsky, showing that in a liquid globe of 
which the angular rate of rotation increases from centre 
to surface according to a certain law, superficial currents 
set from the poles towards the equator, but take the 
opposite direction if the rotation be accelerated from sur- 
face to centre. These theoretical deductions have been 
experimentally verified by M. Belopolsky. A new criterion 
is thereby furnished as to the fashion of the sun’s internal 
rotation. For both Spérer and Carrington have recog- 
nised that the motion of spots in latitude tends, on the 
whole, poleward ; while the closing in towards the equator, 
with the progress of each epoch of disturbance, of the 
zone in which spots, facule, and prominences chiefly 
manifest themselves, is a well-recognised feature of 
periodical solar activity. This zonal movement is held to 
depend upon currents at considerable depths, but the 
drift of individual spots upon surface-flow ; hence the 
sun’s system of circulation is such as to indicate, accord- 
ing to Jukowsky’s theory, rotation accelerated towards 
the centre. 
The cause of this inequality is found by M. Belopolsky 
in the non-homogeneous character of the solar globe. 
Assuming that the variations of its density conform to the 
law adopted by M. Roche for the terrestrial spheroid 
(p = p, (1 — B7*)), it follows that gravity must attain a 
maximum at a certain depth below the surface (this depth, 
in the case of the earth, is 1/6th of the radius). Under 
these circumstances the rate of rotation and amount of 
polar compression of successive solar strata must vary 
with gravity, and in the same sense. It is, moreover, 
highly probable that gravity and angular velocity will 
attain a maximum simultaneously. The ensuing frictional 
acceleration of the superimposed slower-moving layers 
is so conditioned as to lead directly to a law of surface- 
rotation identical with the empirical formula arrived at 
by Sporer from observation solely (§ = + acos #). 
The minimum period of rotation for an interior solar 
shell, computed according to the foregoing hypothesis, is 
21°3 days; the longest observed period for any part of 
the superficial globe is 27-5 days The mean of the two 
(24:4 days) differs very little from the period of 24°5 days 
deduced by Hornstein from magnetic observations. It is 
pointed out that Faye’s va¢zona/e of the peculiar character 
of the sun’s rotation implies for an inner nucleus the 
improbably short period of 2°2 to 3 days. 
EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES! 
HE work of education in the United States of 
America, as delineated in the Commissioner’s report, 
is making steady progress and keeping pace with the 
great increase of population in that country, where are 
266 cities with an average of 40,000 inhabitants, and a 
lowest limit of 7500. Various States are able to perceive 
that a more efficient course of education provided in 
them for the next generation is one of the greatest attrac- 
tions to those earnest striving settlers who are the back- 
bone of a growing country; and money and energy in 
increasing amounts are devoted to the purpose. The 
successful guidance of these powers to desired results ; 
depends largely upon the selection of capable district 
superintendents who will provide for the more careful 
selection and improvement also of teachers, and introduce 
the best methods and the best facilities of instruction ; 
thus making common to the many what would have been 
confined to the extra intelligent few. The first use, there- 
fore, to be made of liberal money votes is the provision 
of high-class inspectors, who can be secured only by 
higher salaries. One important duty of these officers 
arises from the system of establishing schools in every 
1 “*Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year 1883-84.” 
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1885.) 
| district being so perfect in all of the United States, that 
in Connecticut, for example, there are 158 school districts 
which haveless than eight scholars in attendance during the 
| year, and one case is quoted, not as being by any means 
unparalleled, of a school having only four scholars during 
the year, and for three months having one only, whose 
education consequently cost the district 60 dollars. In 
such circumstances the State inspectors can recommend 
the consolidation of several of these school districts into 
one. Where this cannot be done, it is not likely that an 
efficient, qualified teacher can be secured for each. Yet 
rather than this scattered population should grow up half 
taught, the New York superintendent of popular instruc- 
tion recommends that a sufficient salary shall be made 
good out of State or general Government funds. It is the 
more necessary to meet this difficulty as population is not 
everywhere increasing. In Maine, for example, popula- 
tion has decreased, and the number of school districts 
has been reduced already. 
In Massachusetts a greater number of scholars than 
the whole number of the school population (from 5 years 
of age to 15) were enrolled; but, on the other hand, 
Maryland and Virginia showed only 23 and 295 per cent. 
attending, and what reports could be gained from Louisiana 
showed only 19 per cent. enrolled, and not above 13 per 
cent. attending. Of course, in such a State, there is the 
double difficulty of getting the coloured population to 
school and of raising the money to pay for it; poverty 
standing in the way of fair remuneration of teachers as 
much as the lazy ignorance of the blacks in that of 
regular attendance. Naturally halfday sessions have 
suggested themselves as being economical in every way, 
requiring only half the staff of teachers, and half the 
| schools and school-furniture. Buta danger in this system 
is lest the teacher should be overworked ; and, where he 
is able to do so greatly increased work, it is fairly 
recommended that his salary should be increased accord- 
ingly. A great variety of work therefore presents itself to 
the inspectors, and much discretion and knowledge will 
be required to meet all emergencies. 
It is easy to see that no New World organisations or 
ambitions are any match for the evils of population bred 
down to the point of a hard struggle for existence. These 
evils are developing in America as fast as they did in 
ancient cities. Truancy is increasing, and many children 
never attend school even in such a city as Providence, 
R.I. New York experience acquits employers of labour 
of any mischievous influence in the matter. It is curious 
to note that while in England charitable funds have been 
diverted gradually to the education of the more promising 
children, and School Boards have had intrusted to them 
the unpromising residuum, in American great, cities 
the public schools take in all the former, while the 
benevolent are urged to take up the work of teaching the 
latter, for whom the regular course is too advanced. 
Free education, approved by certain States, can be more 
easily adopted in-such a state of things, where the large 
ratepayers get large advantages, than in a country like 
ours, where payment made and advantage to be gained 
would be in exactly inverse ratio. ‘ : 
A very large proportion of the pupils in the primary 
schools are of the ages of 8 and 9, and the number who 
pass on to the secondary schools is about 40 per cent. ; 
but not 1 in 12 of these reaches the higher standards of 
the secondary schools. Since. also 60 per cent. never get 
beyond the elementary schools, the report urges how 
needful it is that the education given in these schools 
should be as complete in itself as possible, and not 
merely a preparatory step towards the “srammar” or 
secondary studies. The different proportions of arith- 
metic required in the different cases will force this upon 
the mind at once. Elsewhere in the report it is taken as 
an accepted rule that more cultivated fitness is required 
to teach a primary than a model school. 
