642 
NATURE 
[OcTOBER 23, 1902 
explanation by natural selection seemed very difficult. Mr. G. H. 
Carpenter pointed out how some of these cases might be ex- 
plained. Miss M. Newbigin and others also brought up further 
difficulties, and some speakers discussed natural selection as a 
form of isolation and as being of less importance than other 
forms. In his reply, Prof. Poulton dealt with many of the 
cases cited, and showed how they could be brought under the 
operation of natural selection. 
Finally, a paper by Mr. C. Shearer, on the early development 
of the head kidney in Polygordius and Eupomatus, and the 
usual votes of thanks to the president and officers brought a 
very successful meeting of Section D to a close. 
GEOGRAPHY AT THE BRITISH 
ASSOCIATION. 
THE changed spirit that is coming over geography was in 
evidence at Belfast. Accounts of explorations proposed 
or executed were limited in number, and half of them related 
to the unknown Polar lands. On the other hand, papers deal- 
ing with the morphology of limited areas and with applications 
of geographical knowledge to economic problems, branches of 
geography which are rapidly growing in importance, this year 
outnumbered the accounts of pioneer travels. 
The president, Sir Thomas Holdich, in his address on the ; 
progress of geographical knowledge, emphasised the fact that 
the area for pioneer work was rapidly diminishing, and that the 
exploration required was of a more exact and comprehensive 
character, which necessitated a more restricted scene of opera- 
tions. He very properly. insisted on the need for an exact 
knowledge of the previous work done in any region before 
attempting to carry out new investigations in it, and that the 
investigators should be thoroughly trained men. In much of 
the world, a topographical knowledge is wanted intermediate 
between that given by pioneer surveys and that of elaborate 
national surveys such as our ordnance survey, z.e. a knowledge 
sufficient to show on a fair scale the salient features, and capable 
of being adjusted to the triangulation of a geodetic survey. 
Following a recent American authority, Sir Thomas Holdich 
called this a geographical as opposed to a topographical survey. 
As geographical survey means a survey of the distribution of all 
phenomena within a selected area, and not merely of its topo- 
graphical features, it would be well to find another term. 
Topography and geography are too often considered synony- 
mous, and it does not help to an appreciation of the true signifi- 
cance of geography to identify it with a topography. Why 
not simply say large- and small-scale topographical surveys ? 
The president of Section E is the last man to limit geography 
to topography, as many paragraphs in his address showed, 
although as a surveyor of long and special experience he 
naturally dwelt most fully on map making 
The travel papers were of a high standard. The audience 
had to listen, not to uninteresting extracts from diaries, but to well- 
digested summaries of results. Major Molesworth Sykes dis- 
cussed the geography of southern Persia, ina paper which might 
equally well be classed among those applying geographical 
knowledge to practical needs. He pointed out the influence 
of the dry, barren conditions of southern Persia and Baluchistan, 
bounded by an inaccessible coast and so escaping invasion from 
the sea, in determining a hardy, warlike race, which has held 
in subjection the plains of Mesopotamia and even of India. He 
traced the influence of physical features on trade routes and the 
new telegraph line. Part of his paper was a contribution to 
physical geography, for it dealt with the changes of the bed of 
the Helmand River. He remarked that the desert of Lut is 
traditionally associated with Abraham’s nephew, and condemned 
our maps for distinguishing between it and the Dasht-i-Kavir, 
as Kavir is the name of Arabic origin applied to all saline 
portions of Dasht-i-Lut, the general name for the whole desert 
area. A very serviceable paper was communicated by Captain 
Ryder on hilly Yiinnan, in which the possibility of the much- 
discussed railway line from Burma was not denied, though 
its utility or financial success was. The natural route was by the 
Red River through Tongking, and a railway would soon be ready 
through the French territory. Mr. Hawes, an energetic young 
Cambridge graduate, told us how he could find out so little 
about Sakhalin that he visited it to discover for himself what 
it was like. It is almost as long as from the Shetland to Land’s 
End, rises to about 5000 feet as Great Britain does, has two 
NO. 1721, VOL. 66] 
rivers each about 300 miles in length, and is covered with the 
forest primeval, wherein bear, wolf, fox, sable, reindeer and 
other animals wander. The climate is one of extremes, but 
popular ideas about a perpetual fog enshrouding it must be 
abandoned. The natives are the Ainus, Gilaks, Orochons, 
Yakuts and Tunguses, but the majority of the inhabitants are 
Russian exiles, few of whom are political prisoners. The Rev. 
W. S. Green brought us to a little island nearer home and 
showed views of Rockall. Prof. Libbey, of Princeton Uni- 
versity, described his recent visit to Petra and showed mag- 
nificent views of its impressive rock temples, tombs and still 
older ‘‘ high places” of Moab, and of the gorges through which 
this depression is reached. 
Prof. Libbey read a prophetic note from Sir Clements Markham 
on the Sverdrup North Polar Expedition, and subsequently gave 
a graphic account of the expedition to renew Peary’s supplies two 
years ago, in which he took part. Both communications expressed 
belief in the safety of these explorers, and were verified within a 
few days. Interest, however, was concentrated on the South 
rather than on the North Polar regions. Dr. Mill gave one of his 
admirably lucid expositions, in which he traced the sequence of 
ideas about a great southern continent and the various phases 
of Antarctic exploration. A crowded audience listened to Mr. 
Bruce’s account of the plans of the Scottish National Antarctic 
Expedition, which will concern itself mainly with ocean- 
ographical and meteorological investigations, for which it is 
exceptionally well equipped. Much is hoped from the kite 
flying by the meteorologists, for which elaborate apparatus has 
been provided, The audience sympathised greatly with Mr. 
Bruce, who has unhappily found himself compelled practically to 
rebuild his ship, the Scofza, at the cost of transforming an 
estimated surplus of 2000/. collected above the sum required 
for the expenses of one year’s work into a deficit of 40007. 
A grant of 50/. was voted by the Association to the expedition. 
Of physical papers, that which attracted most attention was 
Prof, J. Milne’s account of world-shaking earthquakes, with special 
reference to the recent volcanic eruptions in the West Indies, of 
which 93 per cent. are submarine. He associated periods of 
volcanic activity with periods of upheaval, and those Antillean 
eruptions of which we possess records with huge readjustments 
of the Hispaniola-Jamaica fold or of neighbouring folds on the 
American continent. A report was read by the Committee on 
Terrestrial Surface Waves and Wave-Like Surfaces, which was 
drawn up by Dr. Vaughan Cornish, whose well-known recent 
work was outlined in it. 
Prof. Libbey discussed the evolution of the Jordan Valley, 
the origin of which he traced to a rift at the close of the 
Cretaceous period. It was subsequently widened and deepened 
by ice action to the Sea of Galilee, if not throughout its whole 
length ; then submerged nearly as far north as the Sea of Galilee 
and covered with 4000 feet of sedimentary deposits, which were 
afterwards gradually elevated, the stream cutting its bed through 
them the while. Some 3000 feet of this sedimentary rock were 
removed when conditions altered, and probably the glacier dis- 
appeared or the water supply failed, or the rate of elevation 
increased, or all three took place and connection with the ocean 
was blocked. After 1000 feet of rise, the present conditions 
were obtained. Mr. Herbertson read a note on the windings of 
the Evenlode, and suggested that we must look some 150 feet 
above the present level, where the river flowed over Oxford 
Clay, for their initiation. 
valleys of county Cork, which change abruptly from one strath 
to another, to glacial interference, and explained the meridional 
character of many tributary glens as the outcome of faulting plus 
the rapid flow of pre-Glacial streams. Prof. W. W. Watts 
described the features of Charnwood Forest, where old mountains 
rise above Triassic deposits which cover their lower slopes, 
these slopes being here and there exposed in the river valleys. 
He compared the Triassic landscape in Charnwood Forest with 
that of the Great Basin of North America at the present day. 
A report was read from Dr. T. N. Johnston on the Scottish 
Lakes Survey, in which the seiches which have been recently 
observed were described and illustrated by curves. (See 
NATURE, June 12.) 
The only paper on biological geography was that by Mr. 
Lloyd Praeger on geographical plant groups in the Irish flora. 
A careful analysis of the distribution of plants in Ireland reveals 
the existence of several fairly well-defined types. There is a 
marked tendency to a ‘‘central” or ‘‘marginal” distribution, 
the result of the configuration of the country, the central group 
Mr. Porter traced the origin of the. 
ee a oe ee ee ee 
