1872.] MR. E. W. H. HOLDSWORTH ON CEYLONESE BIRDS. 407 



principal features of the country as it now stands. Its position (be- 

 tween 6° and 10° N. lat.) is almost equatorial. Practically it is an 

 island about 35 miles (at its least distance on the extreme north) 

 from India, increasing to nearly 60 miles at the connecting sandbank 

 of Adam's Bridge, and to about 150 miles between Colombo and 

 Cape Comorin. It possesses the character of a true oceanic island 

 in having deep water (no bottom at 150 fathoms) within a very few 

 miles of the land all round the coast, excepting only between Adam's 

 Bridge and Point Pedro, the parts of the island nearest to India. The 

 water shoals abruptly on the south side of Adam's Bridge, and has 

 only a depth of a few fathoms north of it until it passes the line 

 between the north point of Ceylon and the nearest part of India, 

 whence it gradually deepens into the Bay of Bengal. Adam's Bridge, 

 the narrow connecting-link between Ceylon and India, and said to be 

 of comparative recent formation, consists of sandstone covered with 

 loose sand, which is alternately beaten up on and removed from the 

 north and south sides by the sea and wind during the successive north- 

 east and south-west monsoons. It terminates on the Indian side in 

 the island of Ramisseram, between which and the continent is the well- 

 known Paumben Channel. On the Ceylon side the bridge ends in the 

 island of Mannar, which is separated from the mainland by a consider- 

 able expanse of shallow water or mud banks, according to the state of 

 the tide, with a narrow winding channel deep enough for the passage 

 of small native vessels. The bridge itself has also several narrow 

 openings or "scours" at different parts, so that, although Ceylon is 

 virtually connected with India by means of Adam's Bridge, it may be 

 regarded as practically distinct, and, as might be expected, it has 

 species peculiar to itself in all the great divisions of the animal king- 

 dom. Its length is 271 miles and its greatest breadth 137 miles. 



For ornithological purposes Ceylon may be divided into two parts 

 — the northern and southern halves, the northern portion being, with 

 the exception of a few isolated hills, entirely low country ; this is 

 continued throughout the maritime districts of the south ; and the 

 whole coast is surrounded by a narrow belt of sandy beach. The low 

 country generally is extensively laid out with paddy-fields ; but there 

 are large tracts in the northern half of the island which are still in 

 the normal condition of forest, or, from the poverty of the soil or 

 the scarcity of rain, are only occasionally cultivated, and support a 

 scattered growth of bushy jungle rarely attaining the character of 

 forest. This last was the nature of the country round Aripo, where 

 I spent a good deal of time and obtained a great number of the 

 commoner birds. At the north and on the north-east side there are 

 large lagoons or backwaters, the resort of countless Waders ; and there 

 and on the inland lakes or tanks (as they are generally called) Ducks 

 and Terns of various kinds are abundant in winter, and many other 

 birds at all seasons. The avifauna of the northern half of the island 

 is quite Indian in its character. The east and south-east parts also 

 contain a good deal of wild country ; they are thinly populated, and 

 are visited the least by Europeans. One district is the home of the 

 few remaining Veddahs, the supposed aborigines of Ceylon, who, 



