Nov. 11, 1869] 
ences 
BIRMINGHAM 
Natural History and Microscopical Society, October 26. 
—Mr. G. Heaton exhibited a collection of sea urchins, of the 
species Lchinus Sphera, recently taken on the North-West 
coast of Ireland, and exceeding in dimensions the largest re- 
corded by Professor Forbes. Mr. W. R. Hughes, in reference 
to these magnificent specimens, gave a general account of the 
structure and functions of the Echinodermata. He contrasted 
the mode in which calcareous matter is deposited in the Mollusca 
and other classes, with that which is characteristic of the Echini. 
Thus, in the Mollusca it is secreted in various directions by the 
“mantle” of the animal ; in Crustacea it is deposited externally 
to the epidermis, and is cast off when the,animal becomes too 
large for its covering, and replaced by a new shell reproduced 
in like manner; while in the tubicular Annelids a similar process 
prevails. In Anthozoa and Madreporidz it is secreted at the 
base of the animal from its gelatinous investment ; and again in 
Spongiadz innumerable calcareous spicule are deposited through- 
out the mass. In Echinodermata, on the contrary, a method 
totally different from all the preceding is observed, the calcareous 
matter really forming a box, as distinguished from a shell, in 
which the viscera float in a surrounding medium of sea-water, 
and inasmuch as this box can never be cast off or replaced during 
the growth of the animal, from its original size of a pea, up to 
its full dimensions of 13 in. or I14in. in circumference, a very 
special and wonderful provision is made for the gradual enlarge- 
ment of the dwelling. This is effected by the secretion of the 
calcareous salts, not only on the interior but at the margins of 
the 600 pieces or plates of which the case is composed ; so that 
by the slow extension of every one of these at its edges, the 
whole undergoes a corresponding gradual expansion in every 
direction, commensurate with the development of its tenant. 
Mr. Hughes referred to the fact that the magical number 5 pre- 
vails in a peculiar manner throughout the class, instancing the 
5 rayed star-fish, the 5 teeth, 5 jaws, &c., of the Echini. The 
subject was further illustrated by various recent and fossil Echi- 
noderms, contributed by Mr. R. M. Lloyd; spines of Sidaris 
from the South Sea Islands, the star-fishes Crvdel/a rosea and 
Uraster rubens, by Mr. G. S. Tye, &e. 
EDINBURGH 
Geological Society, November 4.—The president, Mr. 
Geikie, delivered the opening address. After congratulating the 
society on its recent progress, he passed on to bring before its 
notice three special branches of inquiry, wherein much useful work 
remained to be accomplished. ‘The first of these related to the 
study of organic remains, which, in the opinion cf the speaker, 
was too much dissociated from that of the strata among which 
they are preserved. He thought that the paleontology of each 
geological formation should be as far as possible the natural 
history of a certain period of the past life of the globe. We 
should try to discover from the fossil remains more of the general 
character of the contemporaneous fauna and flora ; the nature of 
the sea-bottom or land-surface on which they flourished ; their 
various modes of growth; their distribution in space as well as 
in time; the light which they cast upon changes in the organic 
world, and the influence of these changes upon them ; the causes 
of their decay as individuals and as species, and the circumstances 
under which they had been finally entombed. Mr. Geikie 
illustrated this subject from the rocks of the central valley of 
Scotland. He then passed on to the seeond topic, which related 
to the mineral structure of rocks or petrography. That branch 
of the science had fallen into strange neglect in this country. 
After indicating what had been done and what was now doing in 
Germany in that department, he pointed out the special way in 
which it lay open to observers in Scotland, and pressed upon the 
society the desirability of cultivating it. The third branch of his 
address bore on the balance of the various forces which have 
been instrumental in modifying the surface of the earth. Obser- 
vers in Britain, he said, enjoyed special advantages when they 
set themselves to investigate this question. The completeness of 
their geological series, the diversities of configuration in their 
country, the extent of their coast line, the multiplicity and 
variety of their brooks and rivers, all conspired to aid them. On 
the other hand, they were apt from this very completeness of 
their opportunities to take a local and limited view of the pheno- 
mena. This he thought had really happened in the case of their 
estimate of the potency of the sea as a geological agent, ‘Their 
NATURE 63 
position as islanderxs had led them to take an exaggerated view of 
the results attributable to the waves in the general economy of 
nature, and to undervalue the power of rains, springs, frosts, 
and rivers, which in this country do not produce the changes 
which they“effect elsewhere. He pointed out how vast was the 
extent of coast-line where the sea did not reach the solid frame- 
work of the land, but was barred back by long lines of alluvial 
deposit—the waste of the land brought down by the streams. 
The sea in these instances, although perpetually wasting the sand- 
bars, did not perceptibly encroach on the land, for the bars were 
constantly being renewed from behird. ‘The land, though not 
diminishing in breadth, was inch by inch sinking in height, the 
power of the sea being no more than equal to sweeping away the 
detritus brought down to the coast by the drainage from the 
interior, Although seemingly paradoxical, he yet believed that 
in the general balance of forces the influence of the ocean is 
more conservative than destructive, there being a greater area of 
rock under the sea, preserved there from that universal corrosion 
and removal which befall every part of the earth’s crust that 
rises above the waves. The concluding portion of the address 
dealt with the relation at present subsisting between science and 
religion. 
BERLIN 
Chemical Society, October 25.—Prof. Fritzsche communi- 
cated a paper on the action of cold ontin. Tin was exposed to 
40° C., the temperature produced by Carre’s refrigerator. It was 
found changed in colour and structure, the latter becoming granu- 
lar, and the colour turning from white to grey. By heating it to 
less than 100°, the white colour could be restored. By prolong- 
ing the action of the cold, the tin became so brittle, that it could 
easily be powdered, and a kind of blister appeared on the surface 
of the metal. This explains similar changes observed by the 
same chemist in block-tin and organ pipes exposed to the cold of 
a Russian winter. Emmerling reported on liquefied oxychloride 
of carbon. It constitutes a colourless liquid, and boils at 8° above 
zero. The oxychloride of carbon prepared in the usual way con- 
tained an excess of chlorine, which was absorbed by passing it 
over antimony, before the gas was condensed through cold. Der 
Miiller communicated some observations on the preparation of 
Chloral. Prof. Kekulé sent in a report on Chemistry at the 
German Association of Innsbruck. This report keing not as yet 
complete, we shall return_to the subject.—A. O. 
Paris 
Academy of Sciences, November 2.—MM. Sainte-Claire 
Deville and Dieudonné communicated a paper on the industrial 
employment of the mineral oils for heating engines, especially 
locomotive engines, in which they describe certain experiments 
made by the company of the Chemins de Fer de I’Est, tending to 
show that petroleum and coal oils may be advantageously em~- 
ployed to heat the boilers of locomotives. M. P. Thenard read 
a note in reply to that communicated to the Academy at its last 
meeting, by M. Pasteur, on the employment of heat for the pre- 
servation of wines. M. de Verneuil made some remarks on the 
conclusion of M. de Tchikatcheff’s work on Asia Minor, giving 
a general account of the gontents of the volume, which treats of 
the physical geography and natural history of that region. A 
memoir was presented by M. Hebert, entitled ‘* Researches on 
the Chalk of the North of Europe.” He distinguishes in the 
chalk of the Paris basin some distinct stages, the distribution of 
which, especially in the north of Europe, he indicates. A paper, 
by MM. Fougué and Gorceix, containing a chemical investigation 
of several of the gases with combustible elements of Central Italy, 
was presented by M. C. Sainte-Claire Deville. The authors have 
analysed 28 gases, collected in Italy—4 from the Tuscan /agont, 
24 from various stations in the Apennines, between Modena and 
Imola. Their analyses of the former confirm the results of MM. 
C. Sainte-Claire Deville and Leblanc: they contain free hydrogen, 
None of the gases contain acetylene, hydrocarbons of the series 
CH, or oxide of carbon. The gas from Sassuno contains 
hydride of thyle, and those from Porretta carbonic acid in con- 
siderable quantity, and traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. These 
gases are characterised by the predominance of marsh gas in their 
composition, and they are very frequently impregnated with 
vapours of liquid hydrocarbons of the series C**H*™+*. M. 
Faivre communicated an account of experiments upon the effects 
of wounds of the bark by annular incisions under various physio- 
logical conditions. Ina note upon a measure of length unalterable 
by changes of temperature, M, H. Soleil proposes to make stan- 
