Fan. 13, 1870] 
paper “On the Geometrical Characters of Muscles.” He alluded 
to the researches of J. A. Borelli, as given in his ‘‘ De Motu 
Animalium,” published at Rome in 1680, and stated that the 
classification of muscles therein mentioned was surprising for its 
accuracy. Dr. Haughton had modified and added to it as 
follows :—I. Muscular fibres being on same plane: 1. The fibres 
parallel ; 2. The fibres intersect ; 3. The fibres curved (sphincter). 
II. Muscular fibres being on curved surfaces: 1. Where the 
fibres formed right lines; 2. Where no line on the surface was a 
right line.—Mr. Lalor read a paper, not containing any original 
matter, ‘*On the Anatomy of the Oyster.” 
MANCHESTER 
Literary and Philosophical Society, December 28, 186y.— 
J.P.Joule, LL.D., F.R.S., &c., president, inthe chair. ‘‘On Pollen 
considered as an aid in the Differentiation of Species,” by Charles 
Bailey. The author, having recently examined the pollen of 
several thousand species of plants, is led to think that the 
characters presented might prove useful as a means of differenti- 
ation in allied species ; the following notes are thrown out as 
indications of some of the more noticeable distinctions to be 
drawn :— 
1. Form.—It has long been noticed that certain types of 
pollen are characteristic of the natural order to which the 
plants which produce them belong, as, for instance, the pecu- 
liar pitted polyhedral pollen of the Caryophyllacee, the spherical 
spiny pollen of the A/a/vacew, the large triangular pollen of 
the Oxagracee, the peculiar pollen of the Conzfere, or the 
elliptical pollen of the Z#/iaceze and other monocotyledonous 
orders ; in fact, most orders possess a type sufficiently marked 
to be characteristic of each. This statement, however, must 
be accepted with limitations ; the Comfosite, for instance, have 
three or more well-marked types, represented by the beautifully 
sculptured pollen of the Chicory, the minute oval spiny pollen of 
the Asters, Calendulas, Cacalias, &c., and another form wholly 
destitute of spines, as in the Centawrea Scabiosa. There are, 
besides, other natural orders where similar variety occurs. But 
differences of form are met with in plants of the same genus, 
by which the one species or the other is readily marked off 
by its pollen; thus, the pollen grain of Anemone sulphurea is 
roundish, but that of Azemone montana is elliptic; the pollen 
of Aronicum Doronicum is much more elongate than that of 
A. scorpioides ; and while the grains of Ranunculus philonotis 
are round and yellow, those of A. platanifolius are elliptic, white, 
and smaller. 
2. Markincs.—The pollen of the Gevanzacee and Campanu- 
Jacee is for the most part globular, but while some of the grains 
are quite smooth, others are covered with spines ; thus, the pollen 
of Campanula Media has a number of short spines sparsely scat- 
tered over the surface of the grain, but C. vapunculoides is wholly 
destitute of them. In other plants these spines are replaced by 
tubercles, and both spines and tubercles vary greatly in length 
and number; for example, in Valeriana tuberosa the spines are 
only half the length of those on the pollen of V. montana, the 
grains being also slightly smaller. The pollen of the Zi/acee is 
often covered with a more or less prominent reticulation, which 
is subject to much variation ; compare, for example, the coarse 
network which invests the pollen of Le/ium croceum with the 
finer reticulation of Z. cavadense, the grains of the latter species 
being much more globose and smaller. 
3. DIMENSIONS.—Some instances of the differences observable 
in the size of pollen grains have already been published by Pro- 
fessor Gulliver, whose measurements of the pollen of various 
species of Ranunculus show the help that may be derived from 
this character ; 2. arvensis is nearly twice the size of RX. hirsutus 
their dimensions being respectively z+) and st, of an inch. 
For some noticeable differences, compare the smaller pollen of 
Epilobium brachycarpum with the larger pollen of £. Fleischeri, 
or that of Sevecio gallicus with .S. zmzcanus, the spines on the 
latter species being also much coarser. Again, the pollen of 
Silene acaulis is but half thesize of that of S. a/gzma, the latter 
haying some beautiful markings in addition ; the pollen grains of 
this genus differ from the usual caryophyllaceous type in not 
haying the pits or depressions common in the order, so that the 
grains become spherical rather than polyhedral. 
4. CoLour.—This is not so reliable a character for differentia- 
tion as the others noticed, since species differ amongst each other 
according to the soil, &c. The pollen of Ajuga genevensis is 
yellow, but of 4. pyvamidalis is usually white ; again, while the 
grains of Ornithogalum umbellatum are large and yellow, those of 
NATURE 
297 
O, nutans are small and white. In regard to the mounting of 
these objects for the microscope, they show to the best advantage 
when put up perfectly dry ; the cells should be sufficiently shal- 
low to admit of no more than a single layer, and at the same 
time deep enough to permit the grains to move about. If pollen 
is mounted soon after it has been discharged from the fresh 
anthers, the fovilla is apt to condense on the covering glass, and 
the slide soon becomes useless. The stamens taken from an un- 
opened flower-bud furnish the best and cleanest pollen, and these 
should be selected in preference to those taken from the fully- 
developed flower. Canada balsam, glycerine, and other media 
are occasionally helpful in making out structure ; thus the pores 
of Campanula rotundifolia, Phyteuma Halleri, and other allied 
species are made much more distinct when mounted in balsam. 
Microscopical and Natural History Section.—December 6, 1869. 
—J. Watson, Esq., president of the section, in the chair. Mr. 
W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., was elected a member of the 
section. Mr. J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S., read a short paper on 
some of the new Hydro-carbon Compounds from which he had 
obtained very beautiful polarising objects for the microscope. 
Paris 
Academy of Sciences, January 3.—M. Coste was elected 
vice-president, and MM. Chasles and Decaisne members of the 
general administrative committee. The outgoing president, 
M. Claude Bernard, gave an account of the present condition of 
the publications of the Academy, and announced the changes 
among the members and correspondents during the past year. 
The following memoirs and communications were then presented : 
“*On the demonstration relative to the sum of the angles of a 
triangle,” by M. Bertrand ; ‘‘ On the nascent state,” by M. H. 
Sainte-Claire Deville ; ‘* On the constitution of the solar aureola, 
and on some peculiarities of Geissler’s tubes,” by Father Secchi. 
The publication of Father Secchi’s letter is delayed on account 
of some illustrations which accompanied it not being ready. 
The memoirs presented to the Academy were as follows :—‘‘ On 
the poingonnage (piercing) of metals and plastic substances,”’ 
by M. Tresca; ‘‘On a postulate of Euclid,”a note by 
M. Lionnet, and a note on the same subject by M. Fleury. Of 
the correspondence addressed to the Academy, the more im- 
portant were a note by M. Tréve on the action of magnetism on 
gases, a communication by M. Houzeau “On the origin of 
nitrogen gas in oxygen supposed to be pure,” one by M. Gaudin 
indicating the process employed in the fabrication of artificial 
precious stones, and one by M. Prillieux on the movements of 
grains of chlorophyll under the influence of light. Some account 
of M. Tréve’s note, which is of very great interest, will be given 
subsequently. The other elections are referred to elsewhere. 
BERLIN 
German Chemical Society, Dec. 27.—The following 
papers were read :—Ed. Schaer: ‘‘ On some relations shown by 
Coppersalts in the presence of Cyanides.”—Th. Zincke: “‘ On the 
Synthesis of Aromatic Acids.” (The author treated the ether of 
monochloroacetic acid with bromide of phenyle and molecular 
silver thus producing botaylic ether).—Kempf: ‘‘On Chloro- 
carbonate and Carbaminate of Phenyle.”—Vogel: ‘‘ On recog- 
nising Sulphuret of Carbon in Gas.” 
ITALY 
Reale Instituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere.— 
“Report of Researches in the Class of Mathematical and Natural 
Sciences.” (Session, 1868-69.) By Professor Schiaparelli. 
Mathematics.—In a memoir ‘‘On the Equations which de- 
termine the points of contrary flexure of Elliptic Curves,” Prof. 
Brioschi gives the methods of determining the points of flexure 
ieee “S 3) double 
points or cusps. Prof. Cremona has studied ‘*‘ The Transforma- 
tion of Hyperelliptic Curves,” that is to say, of those curves 
whose co-ordinates may be expressed rationally by means of a 
parameter A, and the square root of an integral function of even 
order of this same parameter. The ‘‘ Number of Moduli of the 
Equations and Algebraic Curves of a given genus” has been 
investigated by Professors Cremona and Casorati, whose results 
tend to support the rule given by Riemann for determining the 
said number, also the different rule proposed for the same pur- 
pose by Cayley. A memoir by Prof. Boltrami of Bologna 
contains ‘‘ Researches on a new element introduced by Chris- 
toffel into the Theory of Surfaces,” which is nothing else than 
the quantity by which it is necessary to multiply the infinitesimal 
angle between two geodetics proceeding from the same point, in 
of those curves of the z’th order which have 
