3 74 



NA TURE 



[Feb. 14, 1884 



necessai'y absence of verification, no science of camparative 

 psychology, except such as is restricted to " objective psycho- 

 logy," is possible, 



2. Of the four views of the place of consciousness in the 

 animal world only one — that of fne will — renders the study of 

 the actions of animals incapable of scientific treatment. Of the 

 other three I believe determinism to be the most satisfactory. 

 According to this view both neuroses and psychoses are subject 

 to law. But from our necessarily ejective knowledge of psycho es, 

 we are forced to confine our attention (from the scientific point 

 of view) to the objective phenomena of neurosis, especially as 

 manifested in conduct. Of the psychoses we can know nothing 

 V ith certainty ; of the neuroses we may learn a little ; of conduct 

 we may learn much. 



3. From the principle of the lapse of consciousness certain 

 corollaries may be drawn — («) that it is difficult or impossible to 

 say what amount of consciou'-ness, if any, an action performctl 

 by my neighbour involves ; (b) that it would seem probable that 

 the lapse of consciousness in the individual is paralleled by a 

 lapse of consciousness in the species; and (t') that the hypothesis 

 that instinctive actions are unconscious is incapable of disproof. 



4. On the general grounds given in i, and on the special 

 grounds given in 3, 1 see grave difficulties in accepting the 

 psychological theory of instinct — that instinct is reflex action 

 into which is imported the element of consciousness. 



5. In accordance with the principle thus advocated a physio- 

 logical definition of instinct must be sought. Some such definition 

 as this may be proposed : Instinetive actions are actions per- 

 formed by the individual in virtue of his possession of a special 

 type of nervous organisation, that is, a type of organisation 

 common to his species. 



6. The question of the origin and development of instincts 

 thus Ijecomes a question as to how this special type of structure 

 has been evolved. It takes its place as part of the general ques- 

 tion of the evolution of structures — the actions being the external 

 manifestations of internal structures. To the question as to the 

 relative importance of direct and indirect equilibration I could 

 give no definite answer within the limits of this article, and 

 therefore gave quotations from Darwin and Herbert Spencer. 



C. Lloyd Morgan 



A NEW OBSERVATORY FOR PARIS 



T^HE last number of the' Camples /Ccniliis of the Paris Academy 

 of Sciences contains a memoir by Admiral Mouchez, urging 

 the necessity of removing to a separate establishment beyond the 

 city the chief dep;utments of the Paris Observatory. When the 

 building was originally erected by Perrault about a mile to the 

 south of the Luxembourg, the city scarcely reached beyond that 

 point. But since then it has spread in every direction, com- 

 pletely surrounding the Observatory with lofty edifices, and 

 charging the atmosphere with all sorts of gases, smoke, and 

 other impurities. These altered conditions are all the more in- 

 juri JUS that, thanks to the progress of astronomical studies, the 

 power and accuracy of the instruments have to be continually 

 increased, while a clear and still atmosphere is more than ever 

 needed for taking observations. The vicinity of the Catacombs 

 and of busy streets has also rendered the ground less firm than 

 formerly. 



In 1854, and again in 1868, these adverse conditions were 

 brought before the Government, and discussed in the Academy. 

 After a careful study of the situation, the Commission appointed 

 loy the Academy to inquire into the matter unanimously reported 

 n 1869 in favour of a branch establishment outside of Paris ; 

 but this suggestion, although fully approved of by the Academy, 

 was for various reasons alloucd to fall into abeyance. 



Since then the evils complained of have been aggravated, in 

 spite of all the improvements introduced for the purpose of 

 modifying them. Hence it becomes more than ever indispensable 

 to carry out the project forthwith, if the Observatory wishes to 

 maintain its efficiency and keep pace with similar establishments 

 abroad. The most serious oi)stacles to its legitimate develop- 

 ment are the disturbed and clouded state of the atmosphere in 

 the centre of a large city, the constant vibrations of the ground, 

 and the impossibility of accommodating the astronomers in the 

 building, as is done in .all foreign observatories. Hence arises 

 an insurmountable obstacle to the proper organisation of the 

 night service, while extreme difficulty is felt in improving tlie 

 existing plant and obtaining other much needed instruments, for 

 which no suitable position can be found. 



Merely to erect the long-contemplated tower and cupola of the 

 great telescope there would be required a Government grant of 

 from 20,000/. to 24,000/., besides at least an equal sum to pre- 

 vent the erection of lofty houses in front of the new grounds 

 and to purchase the instruments still needed. But even were 

 such grants obtained, the Observatory would continue to labour 

 under the serious inconveniences above described. Without, 

 however, imposing such a bu den on the State, the difficulty 

 might be met, and the old historical edifice of Louis XIV. pre- 

 served, by erecting in one of the public domains a new and mag- 

 nificent observatory furnished with all the improvements and 

 appliances of modern science. In order to effect this, it would 

 suffice to alienate about 22,000 square metres of gardens and 

 open spaces surrounding the present Observatory, and serving 

 only to isolate it from the neighbouring houses. Sold at the 

 moderate estimate of from 4/. to 61. per metre, a sum of nearly 

 120,000/. might be raised, which would be more than sufficient 

 for the purpose. 



After sacrificing enough land for the construction of two new 

 streets in continuation of the Avenue du Luxembourg, and i-o- 

 lating the Observatory on all sides, it would still retain the 

 northern court and a garden on the south 70 to So metres long 

 by 50 broad. The building would thu- also retain the exact 

 appearance that it presented when originally constructed by 

 Perrault. Here might be preserved the Archives, the Bureau 

 des Calculs, the Museum, and three or four instruments still 

 capable of rendering some service if placed at the disposition of 

 the Faculty of Sciences for the instruction of students. 



All the plans of some such project as is here proposed have 

 already been prepared with the greatest care by the able 

 architect, M. Deharme. They include accommodation for thirty 

 astronomers and assistants with their families, all the instru- 

 mental and service rooms, the halls, and an underground gallery, 

 a structure 300 metres high for the study of the atmosphere, gas 

 works, a covered gallery connecting all the instniments with the 

 apartments of the astronomers ; lastly, the great cupola for the 

 i6m. telescope, at a total cost of 98,350/. Including the price of 

 the new instruments, fittings, and inclosing wall, this sum would 

 be raised to 108,000/., which might be obtained by the proposed 

 sale of lands. 



The Council has unanimously adopted this project, demanding 

 that it be referred to the Academy and to the Bureau of Longi- 

 tudes, which bodies had already pronounced favourably on 

 some such scheme in 1854 and 186S. Thus no serious objections 

 seem to stand in the way of a project by which alone the present 

 adverse conditions may be removed, and France endowed with 

 the most complete and finest observatory of modern times. 



UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL 

 INTELLIGENCE 

 Oxford. — The Sherardian Botanical Chair at Oxford has .at 

 length been filled up by the election of Mr. Bayley Balfour, 

 Professor of Botany at Glasgow. Mr. Balfour has had a 

 distinguished career. Passing his student life at Edinburgh, 

 he finally graduated as a Doctor of Medicine, receiving the 

 University Gold Medal for his thesis, having previously carried 

 off first class honours as Doctor of Science in Botany. Two 

 years were spent in acquiring a jiractical knowledge of the 

 methods of morphological and physiological research in the 

 botanical laboratories of France and Germany under Profs. 

 De Bary and Sachs. We next find him assisting his father, the 

 Kegius Professor of Medicine and Botany in the University of 

 Edinburgh, in conducting his classes alike in the lecture-room, 

 in the laboratory, in the herbarium, and in practical field work. 

 For four years he was assistant to the Regius Professor of Natura 1 

 History in the University of Edinburgh, and for six years he 

 lectured on botany to the students of the Royal Veterinary 

 College, until finally he was appointed Crown Professor of 

 Botany in the University of Glasgow. Of good scientific work 

 done there is an ample record. A valuable paper published in 

 the Philosophical Transactions gives the result of his labours at 

 Rodriguez, where he was sent by the Royal Society in 1874 

 as botanist and zoologist to the Transit of Venus Expedition. 

 In 1880 we find him making a scientific exploration of the 

 Island of Socotra, the results of which have been published in 

 various periodicals, the final report on the botany of the island 

 Ijeing now in course of publication by the Royal Society of 

 Edinburgh. Prof. Balfour's wide experience infield, laboratory, 

 and herbarium, will make him a valuable addition to the Natural 



