NATURE 



{Jtme 6, 1872 



that metal or the alloy was discovered, the discovery was 

 the origin of the German- silver manufacture, and was 

 essential to all manufactures, processes, or appliances, in 

 which German-silver, nickel, or any of its compounds are 

 used. Nickel was discovered by Cronstedt during the 

 year 1751, and its compounds were chiefly investigated by 

 English and foreign chemists. Cronstedt found it as a 

 peculiar metal in the mineral called kupfernickel, whilst 

 chemically examining the properties of that substance. 

 The general method by which he discovered it was careful 

 experiment, observation, and study of the properties of 

 matter. I believe it is a fact that the Chinese and other 

 nations made alloys of nickel long before nickel itself was 

 known to be a separate metal ; they had found, by experi- 

 ment, that when ores of copper and zinc were mixed with 

 a particular kind of mineral and smelted, a white alloy 

 was obtained ; but this also proves the general statement 

 .already made, that the German-silver manufacture was 

 originated by means of experiment and observation. It 

 was by a more skilful, but similar mode of procedure, that 

 Cronstedt discovered the metal itself, and thus laid the 

 basis of improvements in the manufacture of its alloys. 1 

 need not here enlarge upon the multitude of uses to which 

 nickel has already been applied in Birmingham manu- 

 factures, nor speak of the large sums of money which 

 have been and still are made by means of it and its com- 

 pounds. . . . 



"The manufactures of iron- wire and copper-wire for 

 telegraphs are two other modern trades of great magni- 

 tude in this town, and were originated in the following 

 manner : — In 1799, Volta, an Italian philosopher, was 

 e.\perimenting, observing, and studying the electric pro- 

 perties of metals in liquids, and discovered the Voltaic 

 battery. In 1815, Prof. Oersted, of Copenhagen, was ex- 

 perirnenting on the relation of electric currents to magnets, 

 and observed that when a magnet was suspended near 

 and parallel to a horizontal copper-wire, through which 

 an electric current was passing, the magnet moved spon- 

 taneously, and placed itself at right angles to the wire. 

 From these two sm.all experiments, made by putting matter 

 and its forces under new conditions, observing and study 

 ing the results, all our telegraphs and the immense manu- 

 factures of iron and copper telegrapli wire have arisen. 



" There is a saying, that 'all great things have had small 

 beginnings,' and this is true, not only of electric tele- 

 graphs, but also of the great trade of electro-plating, and 

 of the magneto-electric machine, which is now largely 

 used instead of the Voltaic battery. After Volta had 

 made his small and apparently unimportant experiments 

 on the electricity produced by metals and licjuids, various 

 persons tried the effect of that electricity upon metallic 

 solutions. Brugnatelli, in 1805, found that two silver 

 medals became gilded in a solution of gold by passing 

 the electricity through them. Mr. Henry Bessemer, in 

 1834, coated various lead ornaments with copper by using 

 a solution of copper in a similar manner. And in 1836 

 Mr. De la Rue found that copies might be taken in copper 

 of engraved copper plates by the electro-depositing pro- 

 cess. Faraday discovered magneto electricity in the year 

 1 83 1, by rotating a disc of copper between the poles of a 

 magnet, and he has stated that the first successful result 

 he obtained was so small that he could hardly detect it. 

 This simple experiment was the origin of tlie magneto- 

 electric machine, and many of those machines are now 

 used by Messrs. Elkington for depositing copper, silver, 

 and gold, instead of the \'oltaic battery. 



" Another large manufacture of this district is that of 

 phosphorus. The origin of it is due to the man, who- 

 ever he was, who first isolated that element. Histories of 

 chemistry tell us that it was discovered by Brandt, a mer- 

 chant of Hamburgh, in i66g ; but evidence exists that it 

 had been obtained in the separate state very many years 

 before by the early Arabian chemists. Brandt obtained it 

 by distilling a mixture of dried residue of urine and char- 



coal. His discovery was also made by careful experi- 

 ments, and observation of the properties of matter, and 

 had it not been made there would have been no manu- 

 factures of phosphorus or phosphorus matches in this 

 district. 



" Priestley made many experiments on the absorption of 

 gases by water, and proposed sucli liquids as beverages, 

 and those apparently trifling experiments have since ex- 

 panded into the large manufactures of aerated waters." 



After having given these instances out of many, the 

 manner in which these practical results have been ob- 

 tained is stated : — 



" Persons inexperienced in scientific matters are apt to 

 think that discoveries are generally made by accident. 

 The reverse is, however, the case ; nearly all our great 

 modern discoveries were effected by men who were con- 

 j stantly making careful experiments upon the properties of 

 ' matter and its forces, by subjecting them to new and 

 definite conditions. Nearly all persons look upon such 

 discoveries as fortunate ideas, which, when once found, 

 are quickly developed, instead of which they are in most 

 cases, slowly developed results of most difficult mental 

 labour. Discoveries in science are occasionally, made, 

 not by original scientific investigators, but by practical 

 men engaged in manufacturing or technical employments. 

 The hydro-electiic machine originated in this way : a 

 man at Newcastle was attending to a steam-boiler, and 

 found that he received electric shocks when he touched 

 the boiler. This circumstance was investigated by his 

 employer, Mr., now .Sir William, Armstrong, and led him 

 to construct the hydro-electric machine. The accumula- 

 tion of electricity in submarine telegraph cables was also 

 first observed at the Gutta-Percha Company's w^ rks, 

 London. It was noticed on testing the cable by means of 

 a voltaic battery (the cable being submerged in water) 

 that discharges of electricity flowed from the cable after 

 the battery was removed ; this circumstance was investi- 

 gated by Faraday, and led to improvements in submarine 

 telegraphy. In these instances also the same general 

 method was employed, viz., new experiments were made 

 (though not intentionally) by putting matter and its forces 

 under new conditions, and new results were observed. . . 

 '■ Scientific discovery, therefore, by developing new 

 facts and laws relating to matter and its forces, constitutes 

 not only the basis of new manufactures, but largely, also, 

 of the improvements in trades made by inventors and 

 practical men ; and if discoveries are not made, the means 

 by which improvements are effected by such men will 

 become exhausted. The great value of new scientific 

 knowledge to such men is proved by the fact that when 

 new scientific discoveries are published there are numerous 

 inventors and practical men who immediately endeavour 

 to apply them to useful purposes. .Since the first appli- 

 cation of coal-tar to the production of dyes, every dis- 

 covery in that branch ot chemistry has been closely 

 watched for a similar purpose. 



" According to all our experience, scientific discovery 

 provides the knowledge necessary for making inventions, 

 and practical inventions lead to increase of trade. It 

 might easily be shown that in this way scientific research 

 has already resulted in the employment of whole armies 

 of workmen, and in the expenditure and investment of a 

 fabulous amount of money in railways, telegraphs, ma- 

 chinery, gasworks, chemical works, electro-plating, pho- 

 tography, &c., &c., in this country ; and Birmingham has 

 received a large share of the benefit." 



We now come to the point that we are anxious to en- 

 force : — 



" The future success of this town and district is depen- 

 dent upon original scientific research to a degree of which 

 persons in general can form but little conception. Hun- 



