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NATURE 
179 

retorts are filled with goo Ibs. of a mixture of peroxide of man- 
ganese and caustic potash. A current of air passed through the 
retorts heated to 450°, transforms their contents into manganate. 
A current of steam is then passed through which sets the oxygen 
free and leaves a residue of sesquioxide of manganese and caustic 
potash, These processes may be repeated innumerable times. 
Hydrogen, together with carbonic acid, is produced on a smaller 
scale by heating to redness retorts filled with anthracite and 
hydrate of lime, for fifteen minutes. Afterwards steam is passed 
through to reproduce hydrate of lime. The same mixture can 
thus be used for three weeks. The hydrogen is sold at two cents 
a cubic foot in copper reservoirs holding sixty gallons similar to 
those described above, which are sold by the company at about 
eighteen shillings a piece. The sale amounted in August only to 
2,000 cubic feet a day, as coal gas is generally used in preference 
to hydrogen. 
November 28.—C. Rammnelsburg reported on the composition 
of tantalites and niobides. — A. Miiller described a furnace for 
organic analysis.—Fr. Mohr in a lengthy paper tried to refute 
the laws of Avogadro and all modern theories in general. The 
same communicated his views on the connection of the conducting 
power forheat andthemolecular movements of gases. — J. Thomson 
has determined the heat of combustion of hydrogen equal to 340°00. 
This number stands between those found by Andrews (33800) and 
by Farne and Silbermann (344.00). He has also determined the 
quantity of water yielded by the combination of two litres of 
hydrogen, and found a number closely coinciding with that given 
by Stas. The same chemist described an apparatus for showing 
the combustion of oxygen in an atmosphere of hydrogen and a 
mode of exhibiting the alternate reduction and combustion of 
copper.—C. Bender has analysed some combinations of the 
hydrate and the chloride of magnesium. 
VIENNA 
I. R. Geological Institute, November 22.—Fr. von Hauer 
delivered the anniversary address, with a report on the progress 
made by the Geological Survey during the past year.—Baron 
Const. Beust gave a description of the layers of zinc and lead 
ores on the Schneeberg, in Tyrol. Although known for a long 
time, their real value has never been appreciated. The parts of 
the bed at present opened contain, after a moderate deduction, 
ores to the value of more than eighty million florins (eight 
million sterling). All measures are being taken for an extensive 
investigation.—M. F. von Hochstetter exhibited miniature vol- 
canoes formed by sulphur in a soda manufactory. Sulphur 
melted in water under a steam-pressure of two to three atmo- 
spheres combines with a certain quantity of water. Larger 
masses of this melted sulphur (one to two quintals) were poured 
in conveniently deep wooden vessels. In consequence of the 
refrigeration, a crust was soon formed on the surface. In this 
crust a hole was kept open, through which, as the congelation of 
the sulphur proceeded, periodical eruptions of melted sulphur, 
together with exhalations and explosions of steam, were observed. 
After the lapse of an hour and a half, a miniature volcanic cone 
was formed, with all the characters of a volcano formed by suc- 
cessive lava streams. Observations which can be made during 
this experiment are sufficient to explain and to confirm many 
facts observed in real volcanoes. If the artificial eruption is 
interrupted bya second hole made in the crust, the cone becomes 
hollow, and if this hollow cone is crushed and the eruption again 
caused by closing the second hole, a model is formed of a 
younger volcanic cone which is surrounded by an outer barrier, 
like Vesuvius or the Peak of Teneriffe. If the process is con- 
ducted to the end without interruption, the result is a massive 
cone with a closed crater, which resembles perfectly the homo- 
geneous dome-volcanoes, as Seebach calls them. These domes, 
or massive cones, must therefore be considered as the inner 
massive nuclei of perfectly extinct volcanoes, the lava, ashes, 
and tuffs of which have been removed by denudation. 
BENGAL 
Asiatic Society, September 7.—The Hon. J. B. Phear, 
President, in the chair. ‘‘The Vastu Yaga and its bearings upon 
Tree and Serpent-worship in India,” by Babu Pratapachandra 
Ghosha, B.A. The Vastu Yaga and various other forms of 
Serpent and Tree-worship are traceable as much to a feeling of 
fear as to other causes. It is evidently a sacrifice, invented by 
the ancient Aryan conquerors with a view to propitiate the 
aborigines or primeval owners of the Jand. Vastuis the principal 
god, and though the aborigines themselves are not worshipped 
by name, the Naga is no doubt the ostensible object of worship. 

The several gods, properly Aitris (ancestors, predecessors, former 
owners) that occupy the several »anda/as, are also the names of 
Nagas. The Vastu is the God Earth, quite distinct from Dhara 
(Terra) and in the prayer he is represented as the supporter of 
the world. The Vastu Yaga, therefore, appears to be a me- 
morial of the foundation of the new Aryan home and of the 
Nagas, a powerful race of aborigines. In the ceremony for 
dedicating a tank, a stick is planted on its banks. This stick is 
the Niga-yashti, or the Naga-pole. The application of the 
term Naga to the reptile class is without doubt of comparatively 
recent date, and since that time may be noted the double meanine 
of the word applied to the Naga aborigines as well as to the 
Nagaserpents. Ananta is worshipped not as a snake, but as a form 
of Vishnu. It literally means eternity. The Anxantacha-turdas’i, 
Niégapanchami, and such other minor vratas, though connected 
with the Nagas, have nothing to do with the actual reptile, The 
aborigines of India bore a peculiar relationship to the first Aryan 
settlers. Many of the aborigines were held in high estimation, 
and in a legend the goddess Sarasvati is described as imparting 
the art of music to two of the Nagas (Aamvala and As'vatara), 
and the name of Karkotaka, another Naga, is enjoined to be 
uttered every morning, There are again several fruits, trees, and 
things which are named after the Nagas, and these are all 
derived from the N-E, frontiers of India. From the above, it 
would appear that the Nagas as a race ot powerful aborigines 
were respected for their prowess and also hated for their bar- 
barous habits. The eminent among them were soon identified 
with some Hindu gods, and ultimately the Nagas, as a race, 
became a class of gods. Serpent-worship, in the true sense of a 
creature-worship, was never prevalent in India, and though, under 
peculiar circumstances, this worship may be seen at the present 
day among the several hill tribes, still such a practice does not 
obtain among the Aryans. The serpent, as an emblem ot 
eternity, is respected, but it is the worship of Vishnu and not of 
the reptile. Serpents have crept into our mythological legends, 
but in whatever form they appear, they are put down as enemies 
of Vishnu. Rahu is darkness, and its stellar form is a snake. 
Sun=Hari=Vishnu, the destroyer of Rahu, the first destroys 
as darkness, the second as snake, and the third as death. Figures 
of Nagas occur in sculptured stones, but only for ornamentation. 
Several trees are described in Jater Puranas as forms of Vishnu 
and other gods, but they are cherished with a degree of care 
because of their extreme usefulness in the tropical country. For 
instance, Zz/sé as an aromatic herb, the Dawa as a fodder on 
which the cattle live, the religious fig-tree as offering cool shelter, 
the cocoa-nut as a refreshing fruit. Some trees again are noted 
as obnoxious when planted near dwelling houses, because in a 
Hindu hygienic point of view, they are considered injurious to 
health. The papaya plant is one of those that no Hindu would 
like to have near his house. 
PHILADELPHIA 
Academy of Natural Sciences, Sept. 6.—Mr. Vaux, 
Vice-president, in the chair. 
Sept. 27.—The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair.— 
“On the Flowers of Aralia spinosa L. and Hedera Helix, L.” by 
Thomas Meehan. The study of Aralia spinosa L. affords some 
-nteresting facts wh!ch do not seem to have attracted the atten- 
tion of other observers. In Dr. Gray’s indispensable ‘‘ Manual 
of Botany,” it is said to be “more or less polygamous.” I have 
had many specimens under my daily observation this season, 
from the earliest opening till the last blossom appeared, and find 
that it is much more nearly moncecious than the above quota- 
tion would imply. There are three different sets of flowers cor- 
responding to the thrice compounded branchlets of the large 
panicle. When the flower scape elongates, it seems suddenly 
arrested at a given point, and a very strong umbel of female 
flowers appears at the apex. A great number of secondary 
branches appear along this main one ; and they also suddenly 
terminate each with an umbel of female flowers. From these 
secondary branches a third series appears, and these flowers are 
well filled with anthers that are abundantly polleniferous. The 
female organs of these flowers of the third class are, however, 
defective, as only a few bear capsules, and in these, a large 
portion of the seeds have no ovules. The polygamous character 
is confined to this third series of flower, the first two having 
purely pistillate blossoms. In these there do not seem to be 
the rudiments of stamens. The most remarkable part of this 
process of development is, that the whole of this first series of 
female flowers should open so long before the male ones come, 
