498 
NATURE 
[Agril 20, 1871 

short and what is called crystalline, it has lost the fibrous cha- 
racter of good iron. If steel is raised to a bright red heat and 
suddenly cooled, it is rendered hard and brittle, but these condi- 
tions may be modified by the process of tempering ; if, however, 
the steel be raised to a yellow or white heat, and then be sud- 
denly cooled, it is no longer capable of being tempered by mere 
reheating. It is worthless for ordinary uses of steel unless it is 
again raised to a welding heat and rolled or hammered while hot, 
and then allowed to cool gradually. The fracture of burnt steel 
presents a coarse grain and a crystalline appearance. Careful 
investigation, however, shows something more, viz., that the 
facets of the aggregated granules have a more or less conchoidal 
form. The name of ‘‘toad’s eyes” has been given by practical 
men to these concavities. Mr. Williams found that a piece of 
burnt iron contained oxide of iron dispersed through its mass. 
A sample of burnt steel, however, investigated in the same 
manner as the iron, showed no indications of the presence of 
oxide. This, ofcourse, was to be expected, as the carbon of the 
steel must, more or less completely, protect the metal from oxi- 
dation. That iron, when unprotected by combined carbon, 
should oxidise not merely on its surface, but through its whole 
substance, when exposed at a sufficiently high temperature and 
for a sufficient length of time to the action of the atmospheric 
oxygen, is not difficult to conceive, since the researches of Deville, 
Troost, and Graham have shown red-hot iron to be permeable by 
certain gases. In the case of steel, as Mr. Williams states, the 
burning is lintited to the oxidation and consequent removal of the 
carbon, which takes place even at a low red heat. The permea- 
bility of red-hot steel by oxygen and carbonic oxide enables us 
to understand the process of the internal oxidation of the carbon. 
The ‘‘toad’s eyes” or conchoidal facets ofthe so-called crystals, 
Mr. Williams explains by supposing a piece of steel at the 
temperature most favourable to the rapidest endosmosis of oxygen 
and the exosmosis of carbonic oxide to be suddenly cooled, and 
the possible occlusion of the carbonic oxide to be arrested. The 
results would be a certain molecular disintegration and porosity 
of the steel presenting those conchoidal spots. This view is 
further supported by the fact that burnt steel may be cured 
by reheating and hammering, or rolling at a welding heat. 
—‘‘On the Formation of Sulpho-acids,” by Dr. Armstrong. 
Occupied with an investigation into the constitution of sulphuric 
acid, the author turned his attention to chlorhydric sulphate, a 
body discovered some years ago by Prof. Williamson. When 
that substance, SO, HO Cl, is made to react on benzol, the 
chief product of the reaction is sulphobenzid ; sulphobenzolic 
chloride and sulphobenzolic acid being also formed, but in rela- 
tively small quantity. This led Dr. Armstrong to commence a 
series of experiments to determine, if possible, the conditions 
under which the one or the other of the above reactions took 
place, and to arrive at a general expression for the action of 
chlorhydric sulphate on organic bodies. The bodies he had until 
now acted upon with SO, HO Clare brombenzol, nitrobenzol, 
nitrophenol (both modifications, the volatile and the non-volatile), 
and naphthalin. The results of his experiments lead the author 
to conclude that the normal action, so to speak, of SO, HO Cl 
is to form a sulpho-acid, the Cl of the chloride removing H from 
the body acted upon, and replacing it by the group HSQO, ; it is 
only under certain conditions that both Cl and HO are removed 
from the chloride, and a sulphobenzid-analogous compound 
formed. What these conditions are Dr. Armstrong hopes to 
establish by further experiments.—‘‘On a Water from the Coal 
Measures at Westville, N.S.,” by Prof. How. The contents of 
this paper bear upon the relation of the constitution of a water, 
and the nature of the geological stratum from which it takes 
its origin. The water above-mentioned comes from what Dr. 
Dawson terms the Middle Coal Formation of Nova Scotia, which 
includes the productive beds of coal, and which, according to 
- the same authority, are destitute of properly marine limestone. 
The analysis of the water seems to bear out the latter assertion, 
since the water is very poor in chlorides. 
Geologists’ Association, April 4.—The Rev. T. Wiltshire, 
M.A., F.G.S., president, in the chair. A paper by Messrs. 
Alfred and R. Bell was read, ‘‘On the English Crags, con- 
sidered in reference to the Stratigraphical Divisions indicated by 
their Invertebrate Fauna.” In this paper the authors object to 
the present division of the crag series, and especially to all the 
beds which have hitherto been included under the term Red 
Crag being associated together. From palzontological and other 
evidence they conclude that the upper portions of the Red Crag 
ought to be associated with the Mammaliferous Crag, the Chilles- 

dent. 

ford beds, &c., for the whole of which deposits the name Upper 
Crag is proposed. The Red Crag proper should then be called 
Middle Crag, and for the term Coralline Crag the name Lower 
Crag should be substituted. The authors having paid great 
attention to the organic remains of the crag, were able to give 
with their paper lists in which were enumerated a larger number 
of species from the Red Crag than had previously been published. 
Mr. Henry Woodward, F.G.S., while commending the labours 
of Messrs. Bell in the Red Crag, urged the systematic exploration 
of the Norwich Crag, which would, he thought, yield interesting 
and yaluable results. Communications which had been received 
from Mr. G. Charlsworth and the Rev. Osmond Fisher on the 
subject of the paper were read, and after some remarks by Mr. 
Lobley on the nomenclature at present in use, Prof. Morris, in 
an interesting speech, referred to the labours of Mr. Charlsworth 
and others, and advised the postponement of any alteration of 
the crag nomenclature until the recent researches of Mr. Prest- 
wich have been published. Several other members took part in 
the discussion, after which Mr. A. Bell briefly replied.—A paper 
on South African Diamonds was then read by Prof. Tennant, 
who exhibited a fine collection of specimens of these brilliants, 
as well as models of the largest which have been found. Amongst 
the interesting facts stated it was pointed out that in four years 
six diamonds, each weighing upwards of fifty carats, had been 
found in South Africa, while in the same period only one of a 
similar weight had been obtained from Brazil. The president 
expressed his belief that diamonds would ultimately be produced 
artificially. Prof. Morris inclined to the opinion that diamonds were 
of vegetable origin, and thought they might have heen produced 
from decomposed resins. The geological formation from which 
diamonds are derived is very doubtful, as the stones are found in 
gravels and sands brought down by streams. Mr. Rabone, who 
has lately returned from the diamond-fields, gave a very interest- 
ing account of the discovery of diamonds in the colony, and of 
the operations now going on there. It appears that no less than 
150,000/. worth of diamonds have been passed for duty, and 
this amount, there is reason to believe, is not more than half of 
the entire value of the stones found during the past four years. 
The diamond country is, perhaps, 20,000 square miles in extent, 
and there are now 13,000 persons engaged in searching for the 
gems. Mr. Rabone expressed his conviction that after two or 
three months’ labour success on the part of a searcher was 
certain, and corroborated Prof. Tennant’s statement as to the 
large proportion of heavy diamonds found. He considered the 
discovery of diamonds in South Africa was intended to further 
the spread of the human race, reminding the meeting that the 
colony of South Africa is larger than France, while the popula- 
tion is not greater than that of the city of Glasgow.—At the 
next meeting of the association on the 5th May a paper will be 
read*by Mr. Henry Woodward, F.G.S., F.Z.S., ‘‘Onthe Fauna 
of the Carboniferous Epoch.” 
Norwicu 
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, March 31.— 
Mr. H. Stevenson was elected the President for the ensuing year, 
and the Rey. Joseph Crompton, who has filled the chair 
since the formation of the society, was elected a *Vice-Presi- 
Mr. Thomas Southwell was elected secretary, and Mr. 
C. G. Barrett treasurer. The retiring President then read an- 
interesting address, setting forth what had been done by the 
society during the past year, and what should be its objects in 
the future, contrasting favourably the present state of scientific 
inquiry and the spirit in which the search after truth is received, 
with that which prevailed in years that are passed, concluding 
with some remarks upon Darwin’s last book, the ‘‘ Descent of 
Man,” which he said should rather have been called the “Ascent 
of Man.”—After the President’s address, a letter was read from 
Mr. Stevenson, who was unable to be present, strongly reprobat- 
ing the practice of killing woodcocks in spring, when returning 
northwards to their accustomed breeding haunts. He deprecated 
the act as inexcusable, inasmuch as a March woodcock is useless 
for the table, and the shooting season being over, they are mostly 
killed by gamekeepers, whereas, if the birds were allowed to 
remain unmolested, many would breed in this country, every 
season affording fresh instances of their inclination to do so, 
KILKENNY 
Royal Historical and Archzological Association of 
Ireland, April 5.—Mr. P. Walters in the chair. The following 
new Associates were elected :—Rev. F. E. Hamilton, Messrs. 
R. O’Brien, R. W. Banks, W.F. Skene, J. H. Browne, J. 
