December i6, 1909] 



NA TURE 



19: 



the disease-parasite, this may so weaken him that he 

 falls an easy victim to his healthier neighbours. 



Mr. Jones believes that malaria played a consider- 

 able part in bringing about the decline of the ancient 

 Greeks, that this disease fell like a blight upon many 

 fertile districts of Greece, as it almost certainly did 

 upon Attica in the fifth century B.C. 



He considers it is at least doubtful if Greece were 

 malarious in early times. For the truth of the theory, 

 it is not, however, necessary to prove (which is im- 

 possible) that malaria did not exist in early Greece. 

 For, as Prof. Ronald Ross has pointed out in a recent 

 paper, 1 even if the anopheline mosquitoes, which 

 convey the disease, are present, provided the number 

 of infected persons are few, the spread of infection 

 would be slight or stationary, and the disease might 

 fail for centuries to make headway. If, however, 

 ■.\ number of infected immigrants make their appear- 

 ance, endemic cases will increase, first slowly, then 

 rapidly, until suddenly a widespread epidemic will 

 occur. 



In the first chapter of the book the prevalence of 

 malaria in modern Greece and its effect on the inhabi- 

 tants are discussed. In the two following chapters 

 the evidence contained in the ancient medical and 

 non-medical writers of the existence of malaria in 

 ancient Greece is critically examined. The author 

 believes that on the whole it is safe to conclude that 

 malaria was not prevalent to any extent in early 

 Greece ; there are but two doubtful references to the 

 disease before 500 B.C. As regards Attica, there is 

 evidence to show that from the end of the fifth century 

 B.C. malaria began to be prevalent. The disease is 

 referred to in the plays of Aristophanes, and the 

 Decelean and Peloponnesian wars gave opportunity 

 for its spread, partly by the immigration of infected 

 individuals, partly by the neglect of cultivation and 

 drainage of the land, and the increase of the breeding 

 places of the mosquitoes induced thereby. 



The history of Greek medicine after 400 B.C. shows 

 ,a decline in the scientific treatment of disease, and a 

 growing popularity of the dream oracle, charms, and 

 other superstitions, which has never been adequately 

 . explained ; but it is suggested that the prevalence of 

 malaria, which cannot be treated without quinine, 

 might explain the growth of such superstitious prac- 

 tices. This theme is the subject of an interesting 

 essay by Dr. E. T. Withington. 



The condition of the Greeks before the final triumph 

 of Rome seems to have been lamentable — they dis- 

 played want of good faith and lack of courage, they 

 had lost ambition and cared for little but pleasure, 

 and brutality, cruelty and vice of all kinds were rife. 

 This period coincides, according to the evidence col- 

 lected by Mr. Jones, with that during which malaria 

 spread and became prevalent, and lie believes that 

 this decadence of the Greek character may in part at 

 least be ascribed to the ravages of this disease. An 

 amount of evidence is accumulated to show that in a 

 malaria-stricken country the inhabitants lose their 

 vigour and moral sense, and become degraded physi- 

 cally and mentally. 



Turning now to the case of Rome, Mr. Jones, in 

 an interesting essay, ^ from which we shall quote, 

 similarly seeks to show that malaria exercised a 

 powerful (though to a great extent uncertain) influence 

 upon Roman history and Roman life. 



Cicero (first century B.C.) records that on the Pala- 

 tine hill there was a shrine and altar dedicated to the 

 goddess Fever. This altar, we may remark, is also 

 mentioned by Epictetus (Dissertations), and Pliny 



1 Report on the Prevalence of Malaria in Mauritius. 



2 " Dea Febris : a Study of Malaria in Anci-nt Italy." By W. H. S. 

 Jones. I>;sued by the Liverpool School of Archeology. Pp. 28. (Liver- 

 pool : LTniversity Press, rgog.) Price it. 



NO, 2094, VOL. 82] 



says that it had State recognition (both first century 

 A.D.). -Although jebris may be used to denote any 

 febrile condition, it usually means malaria, and the 

 deification of fever is clear proof that it played no 

 small part in the lives of the Romans. As in the 

 case of Greece, the problem arises, has Italy always 

 suft'ered from the plague of malaria? Many writers 

 have pointed out that some districts (e.g. parts of 

 Etruria and Latium), which are now scarcely habit- 

 able, were at one time the homes of great and pros- 

 perous peoples. 



In the very early period, Rome was marshy, but the 

 land around it well drained, cultivated, and the home 

 of prosperous communities, and there is no reason to 

 suppose that malaria was present. By 500 B.C. malaria 

 was in the peninsula, Sybaris being undoubtedly in- 

 fected, and by the end of the Republic, Sardinia, Sicily, 

 Etruria, Apulia, Latium, the southern coast-line, and 

 Rome itself were all malarious. While not to be re- 

 garded as one of the causes of the downfall of the 

 Roinan Empire, malaria, Mr. Jones considers, greatly 

 influenced the course of events, and was a serious 

 factor in the lives of the Romans. 



Mr. Jones has developed his arguments in a de- 

 cidedly convincing manner with a wealth of references 

 to classical and modern authorities, and if he has 

 not completely proved his case, the contents of his 

 book and essay are very suggestive, as well as being 

 most interesting reading. 



\ word in conclusion. Is it not possible that malaria 

 has also played a part in this England of ours? There 

 is a consensus of opinion that parts of Norfolk were 

 once much more populated than is the case at present, 

 as witness the numbers of large and beautiful churches 

 that still exist. ."Vgain, within a radius of about three 

 miles round Newchurch, in Romney Marsh, Kent, 

 there are some ten old churches and ruins of two 

 or three others, many more than are now required for 

 the needs of the district, which is sparsely populated, 

 and the same obtains more or less for the whole of the 

 Marsh, where anopheline mosquitoes are still abun- 

 dantlv present, as the writer has found. Both Norfolk 

 and Romney Marsh were formerly very malarious. 

 Has malaria been one of the factors causing the de- 

 population of these localities? 



R. T. Hewlett. 



STATE AID FOR AGRICULTURAL 

 EDUCATION.' 

 'T'HE annual report on the distribution of grants for 

 ■'• agricultural education and research in 1907-8, 

 lately issued, is a notable volume by reason of the 

 excellent discussion of the whole subject by Prof. 

 Middleton, one of the secretaries of the Board. The 

 total amount expended for education was i2,iooZ., an 

 increase of 550Z. over the preceding year ; the total 

 number of students attending the various institutions 

 was 1313, an increase of 92. The numbers are far 

 from satisfactory in view of the fact that some 10,000 

 young men probably take up farming each year, 

 whilst a certain proportion of the agricultural students 

 do not go in for it at all, at any rate in England. 

 Why does not the farmer take greater advantage of 

 the opportunities for educating his sons? It is hardly 

 a question of means, for agricultural education is very 

 cheap and scholarships are liberally given ; nor is it 

 that the farmers do not know of the existence of the 

 colleges. The real reason, probably, is that the 

 farmer is not satisfied as to the value of agricultural 

 education. Prof. Middleton has drawn up a -table 



1 Board of AEriculture and Fisheries. Annual Report on the Distribution 

 of Grants for Agricultural Education and Research in the Year 1907-8. 

 [Cd. 4802.] (1909) Price lort'. 



