52 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN LANGUAGES. 
and in those languages where a verb ‘to be” has been partially developed 
it is probably never used to form the passive voice. The most common 
method of forming the passive voice is to use an indefinite subject signify- 
ing ‘some one” or “something,” and to place what in English would be 
the subject of the verb immediately before the verb in the objective case. 
Other indirect methods are used. 
The student will probably find a middle or reflexive voice, i. e., a form of 
the verb which is used when the subject is represented as acting upon itself; 
as, I strike myself; he cuts himself. 
A reciprocal voice may also be found, @. e., a form of the verb which is 
used to denote that the persons or things of a plural subject act upon each 
other; as, they kick each other; they cut each other. This form of the 
verb will often be used in speaking of games and sports, for the purpose of 
showing that parties strive with each other. 
Mode in an Indian tongue is a rather difficult subject. Modes anala- 
gous to those of civilized tongues are found, and many conditions and 
qualifications appear in the verb which in English and other civilized lan- 
guages appear as adverbs, and adverbial phrases and clauses. No plane of 
separation can be drawn between such adverbial qualifications and true 
modes. Thus there may be a form of the verb which shows that the 
speaker makes a declaration as certain, 7. ¢., an indicative mode; another 
which shows that the speaker makes a declaration with doubt; 7. ¢., a dubi- 
tative mode; another that he makes a declaration on hearsay, 7. e., a quotative 
mode; another form will be used in making a command, giving an imperative 
mode; another in imploration, 7. e., an implorative mode; another form to 
denote permission, 7. @., a permissive mode; another in negation, 7. e, a nega- 
tive mode; another form will be used to indicate that the action is simulta- 
neous with some other action, 7. ¢., a simultative mode; another to denote 
desire or wish that something be done, i. ¢., a desiderative mode; another : 
that the action ought to be done, 7%. ¢., an obligative mode; another that 
action is repeated from time to time, @. ¢., a frequentative mode; another that 
action is caused, 7. e., a causative mode; ete. 
These forms of the verb, which we are compelled to call modes, are of 
great number. Usually with each of them a particular modal particle or 
