334 



NATURE 



[August 3, 1905 



to be held outside the proper school-hours. At the German 

 universities, however, laboratory instruction began re- 

 latively early, and now stands on a high level compared 

 with other countries. In "Austria, science teaching has 

 been considerably developed, but practical classes have not 

 yet been introduced. In Italy, laboratories for the students 

 at the secondary schools are still unknown, but in France 

 they have been building school laboratories for practical 

 work throughout the country ever since the official 

 regulations of 1902. 



In Sweden, the time devoted to natural science is now 

 being increased; scholars can, in most cases, carry out 

 experiments in chemistry, but practical work in physics 

 is almost unknown in the secondary schools belonging to 

 the State. In Norway, there are no secondary school 

 laboratories, although natural science is compulsory. Then 

 again, in Holland, the secondary schools have no practical 

 classes, but • the study of physics there is carried further 

 than even in Germany. In Russia, science laboratories 

 are being introduced with considerable success. Until two 

 years ago, physics was the only scientific subject taught in 

 the secondary schools, but since then botany and zoology 

 have been added. The experience gained in Russia in con- 

 nection with laboratory work has been favourable, in spite 

 of many hampering circumstances. Several recently erected 

 school-buildings have physical departments which have 

 been built regardless of cost ; the Physical Institute at 

 St. Petersburg has cost about a million marks, and a still 

 larger one is being built at Moscow. 



Dr. Fischer has already shown by his book, " Der 

 naturwissenschaftliche Unterricht in England," that he 

 has an intimate knowledge of English methods of education. 

 His book was the outcome of a visit to this country. 



In treating of the teaching of science in the United 

 States of America, reference is made to the alterations in 

 the curriculum of a great number of schools, necessitated 

 by the recent regulation that previous experience in prac- 

 tical physics and chemistry is essential before being 

 admitted to Harvard University and the Lawrence 

 Scientific School. 



Finally, various details relating to the universities, 

 technical, medical, and other schools in the countries 

 previously enumerated are given in tabular form ; this 

 clearly shows the rapid progress instruction in practical 

 physics has made during the last thirty years. The illus- 

 trations include plans and views of laboratories in Munich, 

 Hamburg, Rotterdam, Meppel, Alkmaar, London, &c. 



Although space permits of only a very brief reference to 

 some of the principal points dealt with, it is enough to 

 indicate that this pamphlet can hardly. fail to interest and 

 to be of use to those who are concerned in the teaching 

 of chemistry and physics. 



The pamphlet by Herr H. Hahn, entitled " Wie sind 

 die physikalischen Schuleriibungen praktisch zu gestalten ? " 

 like that by Dr. Fischer, is one of the separate parts 

 issued, from time to time, by the well known Zeitschrift 

 fur den physikalischen u. chemischen Unterricht. 



Herr Hahn is undoubtedly one of the many teachers of 

 science in Germany who are convinced that the time has 

 now come to introduce the practical teaching of physics 

 into all schools throughout the German Empire. He is 

 endeavouring to attract attention to this subject by de- 

 scribing what has been, and is being, done in other 

 countries, more particularly in England and America. 

 This is probably the best way of refuting the objections of 

 those who oppose this advance. 



The first portion is devoted to suggestions as to the best 

 methods of conducting practical physics classes in schools 

 and to the aim of such work. It is pointed out that 

 formerly the object was merely to impart knowledge, but 

 that now it is to show the pupil the way he has to set 

 about to acquire knowledge for himself, to confirm laws 

 which are known to him, and also to discover those of 

 which he is as yet unaware. Much rational advice is 

 given regarding the management of practical classes ; 

 special stress is laid upon the advisability of avoiding the 

 use of unnecessarily elaborate and expensive apparatus, and 

 of attempting, when possible, to go back to the simple and 

 ingenious means by which a law was first discovered by 

 one' of the great men of science. The author advocates 

 students working singly, and argues that, as all boys, as 



NG 1866, VOL. 72] 



a rule, work at about the same speed, it is possible to put 

 the whole class at the same experiment ; usually- one finds, 

 however, it is only the most elementary apparatus that 

 can be stocked on so extensive a scale. 



Various other questions are gone into, such as the 

 writing-up of note-books in the laboratory, the supplement- 

 ing of laboratory work by demonstrations, the training of 

 teachers, &c. From the numerous extracts and foot-notes, 

 one observes that Prof. Hahn has made a most careful and 

 thorough digest of all the existing English and American 

 literature bearing on this branch of science teaching. 



The second part deals with laboratories and their fittings, 

 and is illustrated with a number of drawings of fittings, 

 small but clearly executed. These, apparently, are all 

 taken from other books ; in fact, about half of them have 

 been reproduced from an English work — Russell's 

 " Planning of Chemical and Physical Laboratories." After 

 some introductory remarks on the size and arrangement of 

 suitable rooms, a description is given of each of the fittings 

 separately, beginning with the simple work-bench for 

 physical laboratories in schools. The ideal is considered 

 to be a bench made to accommodate one worker only, or 

 two in cases of necessity, but it is pointed out that this is 

 too extravagant of floor-space and money to be really 

 practicable. Details of the arrangement, construction, and 

 material of the work-benches are briefly discussed. All 

 the other fittings usually provided are described, and some 

 useful information is given concerning the actual room 

 itself, schernes for heating and ventilating, the supply- 

 pipes, &c. 



Again, one notices that a diligent search has been made 

 for English, American, and German books and papers deal- 

 ing with the fitting-up of laboratories ; from these much 

 information and data have been extracted and compared. 

 The search, however, has as usual been most unpro- 

 ductive ; one finds in the list of literature merely some five 

 English books and magazine articles, together with two 

 American and three German ones. ■ 



Although only a general survey has been attempted of the 

 arrangement and equipment of school laboratories, it would 

 probably be difficult to find a more complete abstract on 

 this subject, and the pamphlet contains much information 

 which will prove useful to those who are fitting-up 

 laboratories. 



STANDARDISATION IN PHARMACY} 

 'T'HE principle of standardisation and its embodiment in 

 ■'■ daily practice marks the most important advance 

 which pharmacy has witnessed within recent years. 

 Standardisation as applied to a crude drug or a prepar- 

 ation is understood to imply that by a method of appro- 

 priate treatment ascertained by direct experiment it has 

 been made to conform to a predetermined standard. The 

 required standard may have a physical, chemical, or physio- 

 logical basis, and may have reference either to one or 

 more definite principles or to a mixture of indefinable sub- 

 stances. The object of standardisation is to secure 

 uniformity of product, more especially in respect of 

 medicinal activity. It is not necessary to hark back more 

 than a generation to see the ever-lengthening strides which 

 pharmacy has taken in the direction of plant analysis and 

 the isolation of definite principles. To this fact the text- 

 books on materia medica and lectures of twenty-five years 

 ago bear indisputable testimony. Then the maximum of 

 knowledge of the constituents of many of even- the best- 

 known and most potent drugs was summed up in the' 

 statement that they contained a crystalline principle, 

 generally an alkaloid, and a few remotelv proximate and 

 chemically unclassified substances. Before standardisation 

 could be brought within the range of pharmaceutical possi- 

 bility it was necessary to make a more thorough systematic 

 and accurate investigation . of crude drugs, with a view- 

 of obtaining precise information as to the nature of their 

 constituents. < ■■. 



To this task the younger generation of workers in the 

 field of pharmaceutical research have mainly directed their 

 efforts. ' Latterly they " have' occupied themselves niot'e 



1 Abridged from the Pre-iiden 

 Naylor before the British Pha 

 July ^5- 



