5 88 



NA TURE 



[October 28, 1922 



this way, into a large compound molecule or crystal. 

 Crehore" hopes that his theory will be found capable of 

 explaining all the properties of matter, chemical affinity, 

 valency, and the electric and magnetic properties. 



Prof. Crehore has constructed a number of models 

 consisting of wooden ellipsoids, which represent 

 electrons, to show the structure which he assigns to 

 the atoms of a number of elements, including several 

 of the isotopes, which have been observed, and the 

 atomic weights of which have been determined by 

 Aston and Fowler, with the positive ray spectrograph. 

 Reproductions of some of these models appear 

 in Fig. 1 ; and they account for the observed 

 atomic weights of the different elements, including 

 those of the isotopes as determined by Aston and 

 Fowler. The positive nuclei do not appear in the 

 models, as the ellipsoids of revolution representing 

 them are very minute compared with the negative 

 electrons. Crehore assumes the existence of three 

 different kinds of positive nuclei ; those of hydrogen, 

 with charge +2e and mass i-oo8 ; those of helium, 

 with charge +qe and mass four ; and those of a 

 hypothetical element with charge +y and mass 

 2- 333- I n building the models these nuclei are com- 

 bined with electrons as follows, to form positively 

 charged particles ; (i) that of hydrogen, with one 

 negative electron, giving a particle H', with charge 

 + e, and marked 2 in the models to show that the 

 charge of its nucleus is + 2e ; (2) that of helium, with 

 two negative electrons, giving an a particle with 

 charge + 2e, marked 4 in the models, as the charge of 

 its nucleus is +4« ; (3) that of helium, with three 



electrons, giving a particle with charge +e ; (4) that 

 of the hypothetical element, with mass 2 J, together 

 witli two electrons, positive charge +e and marked 

 3 in the models. 



Calling this 5, the isotope of lithium (Li 7), with 

 atomic weight 7, is formed by a ring of three 5 

 particles, joined by three electrons, which mav be 

 shown developed into a straight line as —5—5—5. . ., 

 the full hyphens representing the binding electrons. 

 Beryllium is assigned the structure - 4 - 2 - 4 - , the 

 two 4 particles being joined by two electrons, and the 

 atomic weight being nine. Be 10 is a ring — 7— H' 

 — y— H'. . . . Carbon is represented as =a = a = a: : :, 

 oxvgen as =a = a = a = a : : : :, and neon as the same 

 ring of four a particles, with a helium atom at its 

 centre, the common axis of the four negative electrons 

 and one positive particle of the helium being at right 

 angles to the plane of the ring. 



It will be understood that the 7 particle is obtained 

 from helium by removing one electron, and the a 

 particle by removing another, from the other end of 

 the axis, about which the electrons and the positive 

 particle are regarded as rotating. The H' particle, 

 with charge +e, is obtained from Crehore's hydrogen 

 atom by removing one of the two electrons on either 

 side of the nucleus, and the 5 particle will have two 

 electrons, one on either side of the nucleus, and 

 rotating about its axis. These a, 7, H', and 5 particles 

 are held together by binding electrons to form the 

 atomic models described above. The atomic number 

 is in general equal to the number of the binding 

 electrons. 



Athletics and Oxygen Supply. 



T N attempting to analyse the factors which underlie 

 ■* muscular efficiency, most observers have been 

 content to concern themselves with a consideration 

 of the oxygen supply. They have devoted themselves 

 to a study of the means by which fuel arrives at the 

 engine rather than to a study of the behaviour of 

 the engine itself. As a result of the work of Fletcher, 

 Hopkins, and of Hill, we are now in a position to 

 consider the broad question of athletic capacity from 

 the details of the changes which we know take place 

 in the contraction of a single isolated muscle. 



We know that during the initial contraction of the 

 muscle and the period in which this contraction is 

 maintained, there is a liberation of lactic acid within 

 the muscle, and that the actual contraction of the 

 muscle is a consequence of the physical forces called 

 into play by the appearance of this acid at various 

 membranes or surfaces within it. The fact of great 

 significance is that these processes in which the full 

 force of the muscle is developed and maintained do 

 not demand for their accomplishment any supply 

 of oxygen whatever. While the muscle relaxes the 

 lactic acid present is neutralised by the supplies of 

 available alkali in the tissues, but not until the 

 period after relaxation is complete does the oxygen 

 consumption of the muscle begin. In this final stage, 

 in which the muscle is apparently at rest, a process 

 goes on which may be compared to the recharging of 

 an accumulator, for not only is oxygen consumed 

 but the lactic acid disappears and heat is developed. 



A little reflection is sufficient to help us to realise 

 that the sequence of changes in the isolated single 

 muscle, in which the oxygen consumption only occurs 

 during the final stage, has its counterpart in the 

 processes going on in the body of a man running a 

 race. When the running stops, he is " out of breath," 

 that is to say he still needs oxygen injexcess of his 



NO. 2765, VOL. I IO] 



resting requirements, for he does not, from minute to 

 minute during the race, obtain all the oxygen necessary 

 to oxidise the lactic acid produced in the contractions 

 of his muscles. If he runs slowly the process of 

 removing lactic acid will be correspondingly facilitated, 

 for his oxvgen intake will be nearly sufficient to 

 deal with all the lactic acid produced. If, however, 

 he runs quickly, while he does not increase his oxygen 

 intake, he does increase his lactic acid production, 

 and this production will soon outstrip its removal. 

 In other words, the runner will become fatigued. 

 Fatigue, then, is seen to be due, among other things, 

 to the accumulation of lactic acid in the muscle, and 

 the extent of a man's capacity as an athlete depends 

 on the extent to which he can tolerate such an 

 accumulation. His toleration for lactic acid will 

 depend on the reserve of alkali which his tissues 

 contain for neutralisation of this acid. 



Prof. A. V. Hill, in a paper read before the Section 

 of Physiology of the British Association at the recent 

 meeting at Hull, was at some pains to point out the 

 errors into which various observers have fallen by 

 neglecting the oxygen consumption which takes place 

 after running stops. They have assumed that the 

 oxvgen consumption per minute during the running 

 represented the total energy requirement, and have 

 in some cases arrived at the absurdity that quicker 

 rates of running require less oxygen than do slower 

 rates. Yet it is precisely because the oxygen con- 

 sumption can to a certain extent lag behind the 

 development of energy, it is because the isolated 

 muscle can exert its full strength in the absence of 

 oxygen, that a man can run 100 yards at a much 

 greater speed than he can run 1 mile. 



An interesting confirmation of the view that 

 fatigue is due to the accumulation of lactic acid in 

 the muscles is obtained by considering the fact that 



