August 15, 1907] 



JVA TURE 



583 



teachers, he shows that, in the returns of six great 

 cities (Baltimore, District of Columbia, New York, 

 Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Boston), female teachers in 

 schools rank next to hig-he~t in order of mortality 

 from consumption, printers and pressmen being 

 highest. This is confirmed by other returns. The 

 ratio of consumption-deaths per looo deaths is found 

 uniformly higher among teachers (male and female) 

 than in all other occupations. Chalk dust is sug- 

 gested as one factor in causing this exceptional inci- 

 dence. 



Dr. .\rthur Newsholme (Brighton) states, as the 

 result of a careful examination of 806 children (con- 

 ducted bv Dr. Lecky), and a comparative analysis of 

 other figures from Dundee, Dunfermline, and Edin- 

 burgh, that he is inclined " to think that there is not, 

 on the average, more than i in 300 children in schools 

 showing revealed or dingnosable pulmonary tubercu- 

 losis." But "latent tuberculosis" is considerable. 

 Naegeli " found in autopsies of children aged one to 

 five 17 per cent., and of children aged five to thirteen 

 that 33 per cent, had tuberculous lesions." But the 

 origin of the tuberculous infection is almost certainly 

 domestic, not scholastic ; though school conditions and 

 work may, and do, provoke latent tuberculosis into 

 activity. 



Measles.- — The scientific grounds for school closure 

 in measles epidemics were discussed by Dr. Thomas 

 (London) on the basis of 5512 carefully investigated 

 cases. Measles tends to spread when a class accumu- 

 lates unprotected numbers to the extent of between 

 30 and 40 per cent., and when spread has begun it 

 extends until the proportion is reduced to between 

 15 and 20 per cent, unprotected. School closure to be 

 of any use must occur before the first " crop " falls. 

 This conclusion is confirmed by Dr. Davies (Wool- 

 wich). 



Diphtheria. — Dr. Niven (Manchester) states, as the 

 result of numerous investigations, that the " year of 

 maximum incidence precedes the years of school life," 

 and that the " great drop at age six " is probably due 

 to widespread establishment of immunity. The sani- 

 tary condition of the schools has probablv less to do 

 with outbreaks than the absence of playgrounds ; but 

 aggregation multiplies the chances of infection. The 

 " slight or latent " cases far outnumber the discover- 

 able cases. But many " latent " cases proceed so 

 slowly that an antitoxin is naturally produced, and 

 immunity thus established. In practice, it is well, as 

 Newsholme suggests, " to exclude diphtheria con- 

 valescents from .school for six weeks after discharge 

 from school and recovery at home." Diphtheria 

 " contacts " may, though not themselves showing any 

 marked symptom, spread the disease. 



(3) .School-'u'ork and Healthy-mindedness. — Prof. 

 James Sully, from the standpoint of general psycho- 

 logy-, concludes that current educational ideals over- 

 emphasise Rousseau's half-truth that " education is 

 essentially a process of following nature, of observing, 

 understanding, and safeguarding a natural process of 

 development." Healthy-mindedness means vigorous 

 intellectual faculties strongly predisposed to exercise 

 their proper functions. But many facts show that 

 present-day school-work, by excess of book-learning 

 and neglect of the actualities of life, tends to reduce 

 mental vigour and to predispose the average person to 

 accept opinions without examination or test. But 

 there are signs that the schools are conscious of this. 

 Prof. Sully does not seem to allow sufficiently for the 

 large positive content of the reaction against books. 

 This positive content is more obvious in .American 

 methods than here. But all agree with him that 

 education ought to produce a " healthy, vigorous 

 attitude of mind." 



NO. 1972, VOL. 76] 



(4) Age for School .ittendance. — The science of the 

 English custom of sending to the day-school infants 

 of three to five was examined by Dr. Newsholme. His 

 main conclusion is against the custom, first, on the 

 practical ground that the danger of fatal infection is 

 vastly increased (though the facts are too few to be 

 conclusive); second, because there is no educational 

 advantage. On the opposite side, it was contended 

 that the school, if properly adapted as a plav-place, not 

 a work-place, fulfils the functions of the home by 

 giving scope and atmosphere for infantile play-energies 

 and dispositions, which are the biological prelude to 

 education proper. The problem is of profound import- 

 ance ; for it involves the whole theory of the creche, 

 the kindergarten, and the play-centre. But there is no 

 body of scientific evidence to make even a provisional 

 conclusion possible. It is certain, on the other hand, 

 that many schools as they exist are quite unfit for the 

 work of tending infants of three to five, and there is 

 no general " play-curriculum " adapted to their needs. 

 Biologically, it is a doubtful gain to leave the delicate 

 organism of three absolutely to the chance environ- 

 ment of " home " or street, where an ineradicable 

 bias to evil mental habits may readily be produced. 

 Scientifically, the problem remains for future con- 

 gresses. 



A related topic is the vacation camp or holiday home. 

 Many practical descriptions were given, but no criti- 

 cised quantities. Captain Polvliet (.'\msterdam) de- 

 scribed in detail the practice of a holiday camp in 

 Holland, and the conditions of healthy freedom com- 

 bined with sport programmes seemed to be realised. 

 The results to health were undoubted. 



(5) Physical Training. — The tendency of the prac- 

 tical educationist is rather to rest in " systems " of 

 muscular training than to make an effort to discover 

 fundamental principles. Such an effort, however, was 

 made by Dr. Hulbert (London), who showed how 

 intimately the voice is affected by the stiffness or 

 elasticity of the body, and so forms an indicator of 

 physical conditions. Position in voice-using must be 

 good, but absolutely free from rigidity. Control of 

 breathing must be acquired by cultivating elasticity 

 of the elastic parts of the chest. Respiration for voice- 

 production should depend on the essential muscles 

 of respiration, not on the external. When the right 

 quality of muscular movement and of muscle is secured 

 by training, good voice naturally results. The ordin- 

 ary " systems " fail in this, because they rely on 

 coarse muscular movements. For good tone, physical 

 training of the right kind is essential. There are three 

 main factors — position, control of breathing, and the 

 abdominal press. 



Dr. Gulick (New York) described the place and 

 limitations of folk-dancing as an agency in physical 

 training. School gymnastics fail to establish habits 

 of exercise, especially in girls. Selected dances can 

 be adapted to the feminine physiological, psycho- 

 logical, social and aesthetic needs. Tliey involve large 

 masses of muscle, and can be carried on two or three 

 times as long as gymnastics without fatigue-^a fact 

 of cardinal importance. The instinct feelings are tied 

 up with the neuro-muscular system in a fundamental 

 way, and the dance evokes them in the individual. 

 But dancing fails to correct the faulty postures due to 

 school-desks. It is a useful adjunct to training, but 

 not alone adequate. But the interest excited has led 

 to its securing a high place in the New York elemen- 

 tary and high schools. 



(6) School Work — Duration, Sequence of Lessons, 

 and Seasons. — Dr. Leo Burgerstein (Vienna) opened a 

 general discussion on this subject, commenting on the 

 practical difficulties of obtaining trustworthy measure- 

 ments of fatigue. But it is certain that work con- 



