August 27, 1896J 



NA TURE 



405 



(1621 mm.), but the Kammalansarc shorter (1597 mm. ). The 

 Brahmans are better nourished, and have broader heads 

 (142 mm.), the other three castes averaging 137 mm. ; they also 

 have the largest hands. Taking them all round, there is not 

 that dilierence between the Brahmans and Pariahs that one 

 might expect to find ; but this can be explained by racial 

 mixture. A. C. H. 



SCIE.\TIFIC EDUCATION IN GERMANY AND 



ENGLAND} 

 TN our frequent discussions on scientific education, we have both 

 often been struck with some points of very great difference 

 between the English and the German way of dealing with it. 

 As it may be asserted without national arrogance that University 

 education is in Germany in a more satisfactory condition than 

 in your country, you are, of course, anxious to know which of 

 the German customs I consider most effective in bringing about 

 this better state of things ; and I will, therefore, try to point 

 them out. Of course, I shall confine myself to the subject of 

 natural science, and especially chemistry and physics, feeling 

 myself unable to deal with sciences beyond my knowledge. The 

 main point of our system may be expressed in one word — free- 

 dom — freedom of teaching and freedom of learning. The first 

 involves for the teaclier the necessity of forming in his mind a 

 clear conception of the scope of his .science, for, as he is free to 

 choose any possible method of view, he feels himself answerable 

 for the particular one he has chosen. And in the same way 

 the student feels himself responsible for the method and the 

 subjects of his studies, inasmuch as he is free to choose any 

 teacher and any subject. One who has not seen this system in 

 action may be inclined to think that such a system must lead to 

 arbitrary and irresponsible methods on the side of the teacher, 

 and to confusion on the part of the student. But the former is 

 avoided, because at the beginning of his career the teacher is 

 dependent for his advancement on the results of his scientific 

 views, and is naturally anxious to improve his position in the 

 educational world. And as for the students, they themselves 

 impose certain restrictions on their own freedom. Most of them 

 feel that they require some advice and guidance, and they there- 

 fore follow the usual and approved order in conducting their 

 studies. As to the inventive man of original ideas, it has often 

 been proved that for him any way is almost as good as any 

 other, for he is sure to do his best anywhere. Moreover, such 

 a man very soon excites the interest of one of his teachers, and 

 is personally led by him, generally to the great advantage of 

 both. 



Let me illu.stratc these general remarks by considering the 

 course followed by an average chemist. In his first half-year 

 he hears lectures on inorganic chemistry, physics, mineralogy, 

 sometimes botany, and of late often differential calculus. More- 

 over, the German student is accustomed to take a more or less 

 strong interest in general philosophy or history, and to add in 

 his Bclegbiiih (list of lectures) to the above-named facluoilegien 

 (specialised studies) one or two lectures on philosophy, general 

 or German history, or the like. \'ery often there are in the 

 Univer.sity one or more popular professors whose lectures are 

 heard by students of all faculties without reference to their 

 special studies. The student who has heard during his stay at 

 the University only lectures belonging strictly to his Fach, is 

 not well thought of, and is to some extent looked down on as a 

 narrow specialist. But I must add that such views are not pre- 

 valent in all faculties, and there are .some — tr.^., the faculty of 

 law — whose students confine themselves, with few exceptions, 

 to attending e.xclusively lectures in that faculty. 



In the second half-year the chemical student begins with 

 practical laboratory work. Notwithstanding the perfect free- 

 dom of the teachers, the system first introduced by Liebig into 

 his laboratory at (jiessen is still universally adopted in German 

 universities and technical high schools — viz. qualitative and 

 quantitative chemical analysis, the former conjoined with 

 simple spectroscopic work, the latter amplified by volumetric 

 analysis. This is followed by a course of chemical preparations, 

 formerly chiefly inorganic, now chiefly organic. Even here, a 

 regular system is being widely developed owing to the use of 

 some well-known text-books. Of late years this course is 



1 .\ letter from Prof. W. O.stwaW, a 

 the Times, August 25. 



ated by Prof. W. Ramsay to 



NO. 1400, VOL. 54] 



followed in some laboratories by a series of exercises in physical 

 chemistry and electro-chemistry. 



While these practical exercises, which last for three or four 

 half-years, are being carried out, the student completes his 

 know ledge of physics, mathematics, and the other allied sciences 

 by hearing lectures and working practically in the physical and 

 often also in some other laboratory. The exercises done, he goes 

 to the professor and asks him for a "theme" to begin his "work" 

 — viz., his dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 

 This is the most important moment in his life as a student, for it 

 generally determines the special line of his future career. The 

 "theme" is usually taken from the particular branch of the 

 subject at which the professor himself is working ; but, as the 

 scientific name and position of the professor depends, not only 

 on his own work, but to a large extent on the work issuing from 

 his laboratory, he is careful not to limit himself to too narrow a 

 range of his science. 



Of course it is best of all if the student selects for himself a 

 .suitable "theme," suggested to him by his lectures or practical 

 work, or from private study of the literature of the science. But 

 this seldom happens, for the young student is not yet able to 

 discern the bearing of special questions, and lacks knowledge 

 how to work them out. Sometiines (but not very often, indeed) 

 he points out to his professor in a general way the kind of 

 problems he would like to work at, and the professor suggests 

 to him a special problem out of this range of subjects. During 

 the working out of his chosen subject the student learns gener- 

 ally much more than he has heard at lectures. Every part of 

 the investigation forces him to revise the scientific foundations 

 of the operations he perforins. During this time the incidental 

 short lectures given by the professor on his daily round from one to 

 another of the advanced students are most efi'ective in deepening 

 and strengthening the student's knowledge. As these explanatory 

 remarks are generally heard not only by the student whose 

 work has caused them, but also by a number of fellow-students 

 working near, a fairly wide range of scientific questions are dealt 

 with in their hearing. Often these small lectures develop them- 

 selves into discussions, and, as for myself, I judge from the 

 frequency of such discussions between the students whether the 

 session will turn out a good one or not. If the professor thinks 

 the work sufficiently complete to be used as a dissertation, the 

 student proceeds to the close of his studies. He prepares him- 

 self for the examination, which is conducted by the very professors 

 whose lectures he has heard and in whose laboratories he has 

 worked. This examination varies somewhat in different uni- 

 versities, but in no case is it either very long or extensive ; 

 indeed, it is not considered as very important. For we are all 

 aware what an uncertain means of determining a map's kno%v- 

 ledge and capabilities an examination is, and how much its issue 

 depends upon accidental circumstances. Part of this uncertainty 

 is removed by the fact that the professor and the pupil know 

 each other, are acquainted with one another's modes of expres- 

 sion and scientific views. The main purpose of the examination 

 is to induce the student to widen his knowledge to a greater 

 extent than is covered by the subject of his dissertation ; but, 

 indeed, it happens very seldom that a student whose work is 

 considered sufficient does not pass the examination. 



We have no great fear that this system may induce a professor 

 to treat his own pupils in too lenient a way, and so lower the 

 standard of the Doctor's degree. There was a time when such 

 abuses used to occur, but there very soon arose such public 

 indignation that the abuses ceased to occur. Even at the 

 present day similar instances occasionally occur, but, as before 

 remarked, the position of a professor depends in such a degree 

 upon the value of the dissertations worked out under his super- 

 vision, that such deviations from the right way correct themselves 

 in the course of time. The mo.st effective instrument for that 

 purpose is the publication of all dissertations and the consequent 

 public control over them ; for this reason publication is, I believe, 

 compulsorily prescribed in all German universities. 



When the student has finished his course he is still entirely 

 free to choose between a scientific and a technical career. This 

 is a very important point in our educational system ; it is made 

 possible by the circumstance that the occupation of a technical 

 chemist in works is very often almost as scientific in its character 

 as in a university laboratory. This is connected with a remark- 

 able feature in the development of technical chemistry in 

 Germany — the very point upon which the important position of 

 chemical manufacture in this country depends. The organisa- 

 tion of the power of invention in manufactures and on a large 



