TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1129 
and the professional survey surveyed the village lands topographically, and deter- 
mined the exact area of the village as a check on the settlement areas. In 1871 
the settlement surveys in the North-West Provinces were made over to the pro- 
fessional surveyors, and since that time various modifications and improvements 
have been introduced, with the result that the Survey now prepares all the papers 
and statistics required by the Settlement Department for assessment. 
Based on points whose data have been calculated by the Great Trigonometrical 
Survey of India, the surveyor fixes other points on the boundaries of the villages 
of a district, and from these again he works down to each individual field, which is 
the unit of survey. The areas of each village and of each field are calculated, and 
all the processes are checked and proved throughout. 
The proprietary and cultivating tenures are very complicated, and the land is 
very much cut up by subdivision among the landlords and tenants, The Survey 
prepares ‘records of rights’ and ‘rent-rolls,’ defining the rights and giving the 
castes of landlords and tenants for each field. It also collects information regarding 
the rents paid, the crops grown, the nature of the soil, and the means of irrigation, 
and prepares abstracts of these to guide the settlement officer in his assessments. 
The village maps are reproduced by photography, and are also reduced to 
smaller scales to make up district maps and the atlas of India. 
The establishment of a Cadastral Survey during the field season is very large ; 
it is reduced to an office establishment during the hot weather. The yearly out- 
ae ranges from 650 to 800 square miles, comprising sometimes over a million of 
elds. 
Great advantages are derived from the Cadastral Survey, such as stopping 
litigation about boundaries of villages and fields, defining the rights of landlords 
and tenants, enabling the Government to know the amount of land under cultiva- 
tion, and to provide for famines and for the social problems that will be developed 
in the near future by the great increase of population. 
6. The Ordnance Survey of Cyprus. By TRELAWNEY SAUNDERS. 
¢. The Rivers of the Punjab. By General Ropert Mactaaan, RL. 
The country called Punjab receives its name from the rivers which give it its 
distinctive geographical character. The name, as is well known, means ‘five 
waters,’ and they are the five great tributaries of the Indus, namely, Jhelam, 
Chinab, Ravi, Bids, and Satlaj. 
In early times it was called the land of the seven rivers, including the Indus 
itself on one side, and on the other the Saraswati, which was the eastern boundary 
of the land occupied by the Aryan immigrants from the north (about 1500 B.c.). 
The modern British province which we call Punjab—the country marked off 
for administrative purposes as the charge of the local government—is not thus 
bounded by the lines of one river system. It includes on one side the strip of 
country between the Indus and the hills, and on the other a large extent of 
cultivated plain as far as the Jamna, a river which has different geographical 
relations. 
The seven-river-land (Sapta-Sindu) of the early Aryans had distinct river 
boundaries, as then understood. The Saraswati, its eastern boundary, presents to 
us an interesting geographical problem. It is not now such a river as is described 
in the ancient writings, in which it is mentioned along with the others, and as being 
of still greater size and importance. Nor can it ever have been a river of the same 
kind, as it has its source in the low outer hills, while the others come from per- 
petual snows. Its channel is dry for great part of the year, and it never carries 
water on so far as to unite with the other rivers. The changes in the country 
through which it passes may account for a great change of the river. About the 
sixth century B.c. the Saraswati is said to sink into the earth, and to pass under- 
ground to join the Ganges and Jumna at their confluence. This seems intended 
to describe a river such as it is now. 
