TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123 



able to connect them with the evidence of distinct types furnished by physiognomy 

 and mental characteristics. As we may learn from the history of geology, it will be 

 only after the results of distinct lines of investigation have been grouped and gene- 

 ralized, that we can succeed in establishing fundamental principles on which the 

 superstructure of comparative anthropology can be safely erected. 



On North Polar Exploration. By C. R. Markham, F.R.G.S. 



The paper was a recapitulation of the arguments which the author and Captain 

 Sherard Osborn had urged before the Royal Geographical Society, during the last 

 Session, in favour of an expedition to investigate the unknown region around the 

 North Pole. The introduction of the subject to the Section was thought appro- 

 priate, as the governing body of the British Association was about to nominate a 

 Special Committee for the purpose of representing to Her Majesty's Government 

 the advantages to various branches of science which would accrue from such an 

 expedition. Of the two routes towards the Pole which had been proposed, namely, 

 those of Smith Sound and Spitzbergen, the author gave a decided preference to 

 the former. He contended that it was impossible to reach the Pole or perform 

 much scientific work by a sea voyage like that proposed via Spitzbergen, and Sir L. 

 M c Clintock agreed with him in the opinion that the only way of accomplishing 

 these objects was by sledging parties from Smith Sound. An additional reason 

 for the preference of Smith Sound by an English expedition is now supplied by the 

 circumstance of the Germans having recently commenced, at the invitation of Dr. 

 Petermann, the organization of a North Polar expedition to go by the Spitzbergen 

 route. A pioneer vessel started a few days ago, and although it had broken down 

 shortly after leaving Hamburg, there was little doubt that the attempt would be 

 renewed next year. The route via Spitzbergen was therefore preoccupied ; and 

 we ought to concentrate our energies on the only alternative route, namely, that 

 of Smith Sound. 



Results of Surveys relating to the Water Supply of Jerusalem. 

 By Capt. T. H c Neill and Capt. Wilson, B.E. 



This was an elaborate Report to the Syrian Improvement Committee, by the en- 

 gineers employed, of their surveys in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, with a view 

 to improve the water supply of the city, and was introduced, with additional re- 

 marks, by Dr. T. Hodgkin. The survey was undertaken in the autumn of 1864. 

 The question of the water supply of Jerusalem had been, from an early period, of 

 much interest, the more so on account of the natural difficulties which attended the 

 subject. Looking at the remains of ancient works, there is nothing to indicate that 

 Jerusalem ever had a large supply of water brought from a distance. The fact of 

 the skill shown in procuring and conveying the small quantity of water by the con- 

 duits to the town, and in the construction of reservoirs for catching the surface 

 water, shows that this necessary element must always have been scarce. The chief 

 supply must have consisted of rain-water collected within the town and stored in 

 tanks, as in the present day. Jerusalem is about 2700 feet above the Mediterranean, 

 and 4000 above the Dead Sea, and is placed pretty nearly on the crest of the hills 

 which define the watershed of the country. The road from Jerusalem to Bethlehem 

 on the south, and to Bireh on the north, roughly marks this line. The road to 

 Bireh rises from Jerusalem, Bireh being about 300 feet above the city. The coun- 

 try north of Bireh maintains its elevation for some distance ; but here, as in nearly 

 all cases, the country is cut up by valleys, which form a very peculiar feature, in- 

 fluencing not only the landscape but the water question. The district around 

 Jerusalem consists principally of the steep sides of valleys which twist and encircle 

 each other, their general direction being towards the Mediterranean on the west, 

 and the Dead Sea on the east. The valleys are deep, the sides rocky and bare of 

 soil, which appears to have been earned to the valley-bottoms by the winter rains, 

 and the soil absorbs the rain, instead of allowing it to run over the surface. The 

 cause of the present sterility of the district is the destruction, by neglect, of the ar- 

 tificial terraces which probably existed formerly, and which, by retaining the soil 

 on the steep slopes, led to the ancient fertility of the .country. The entire absence 



