524 



NATURE 



[September 9, 1909 



ing tlie southern side of the Takla Makan Desert and the 

 Lob Nor Desert to Suchou and Kan-chou. He surveyed 

 a large area of the mountainous region lying westward of 

 Kan-chou, then crossing the desert from Anshi to Hami 

 he returned north of the Tarim River, skirting the southern 

 slopes of the Tian Shan range, to Kashgar. During this 

 verv long journey Dr. Stein came across the ancient 

 frontier wall, built about the second century B.C. He 

 traced it west of Suchou, until lost in the desert, for some 

 250 miles, and he made various incursions into and across 

 the desert, making discoveries of the greatest antiquarian 

 interest. 



After his return to Kashgar he surveyed the last un- 

 explored portion of the Kun Lun Mountains and the 

 country containing the sources of the Khotan or Yurung- 

 kash River, which proved to be flanked on the south by 

 a magnificent range of snowy peaks rising to more than 

 23,000 feet ; thence passing the sources of the ICeriya River 

 he skirted the southern slopes of this snoww range and 

 finished by connecting this survey with that to the north 

 of this range. The privations and hardships undergone by 

 Dr. Stein and his party were very great, and, just as he 

 completed his last bit of survey, he was unfortunate 

 enough to get his foot badly frost-bitten, and had to hasten 

 to more civilised parts for medical treatment. 



Dr. Stein, during his expedition, displayed all the best 

 qualities of an explorer — enthusiasm, determination, skill, 

 and tact. The modest account he has so far given us of 

 his travels, which gives a mere outline of his work, shows 

 that the geographical as well as the archaeological results 

 of his expedition are of the greatest value. 



The last completed exploration I propose to mention is 

 Lieut. Shacklcton's great journey in the .Antarctic Circle, 

 which has raised him to a high position among the gallant 

 explorers of the Polar regions. 



Lieut. Shackleton personally arranged and supervised all 

 arrangements for the expedition, his experience in the 

 British Antarctic expedition under Captain Scott standing 

 him in good stead. 



Having landed in McMurdo Sound, a party consisting 

 of Lieut. Adams, Prof. David, and others ascended Mount 

 Erebus, which is more than 13,000 feet high, all above 

 snow-level. 



Later on Lieut. Shackleton and a sledge-party set off 

 southward, and after an arduous journey succeeded in 

 reaching 88° 33' south latitude, more than six degrees 

 nearer the Pole than any previous explorer. His party 

 travelled altogether about 1700 miles, including relays, in 

 126 days, a splendid performance in a rough and difficult 

 country under very trying climatic conditions. Soon after 

 passing 83° 33' south latitude they lost their last pony, 

 and from this point they had to drag their sledges them- 

 selves, although their journey involved the ascent of a 

 plateau 10,000 feet high. They only turned back when 

 their diminishing stock of provisions rendered it impera- 

 tively necessary to do so. They were for a considerable 

 time on short rations, and found several times that they 

 had expended their food supplies before reaching their 

 next dep6t. Had they missed one of these dep6ts — no un- 

 likely contingency in such a country — they must have 

 perished by starvation. .Mtogelher the sledge journey was 

 a great feat of pluck and endurance. 



Lastly, Lieut. Shacklcton's colleague. Prof. David, with 

 others, made a sledge journey to the north-west, reaching 

 the South Magnetic Pole. A good deal of triangulation 

 was carried out, many geological specimens were collected 

 and much scientific information was obtained. 



Whether we consider Lieut. Shacklcton's skill and 

 energy in organising the expedition, the courage and deter- 

 mination displayed in carrying it out, or the results 

 obtained, his expedition will stand out as one of the 

 greatest of the many great efforts to reach the Poles, and 

 as a British expedition it is one that specially appeals 

 to us. 



At first sight it would seem that these great journeys 

 belie the opinion so often expressed of late years that the 

 days of the explorer are numbered, and that in future 

 geographers will have to deal with surveys rather than 

 exploration ; but, in fact, these splendid achievements only 

 strengthen this opinion. These explorers have consider- 

 ably reduced the comparatively small area still unexplored, 



NO. 2080, VOL. 81] 



and other expeditions are helping to diminish the un- 

 explored area. 



Among those which are in progress I may mention the 

 following : — Colonel Kozlof's expedition to Mongolia, which, 

 has already visited Kuku Nor and which is exploring the 

 upper course of the Huang Ho and other parts of Mongolia. 

 Lieut. Boyd Alexander is exploring in West Africa. The 

 Duke of the Abruzzi is investigating part of the moun- 

 tainous region across our Indian frontier; Dr. Longstaff 

 is exploring another part of that mountain system ; Captain 

 R. E. Peary, U.S..\., and Captain E. Mikkelsen are lead- 

 ing expeditions in different parts of the Arctic regions, and/ 

 M. Charcot is exploring in the .Antarctic Circle. Lastly, 

 an important British ' expedition w'ill start before long to 

 explore part of the Island of New Guinea, one of the 

 largest still unexplored land areas. There are other ex- 

 peditions, either in progress or projected, too numerous to 

 mention. 



The best modern explorers are not now content with 

 exploration or even with a rough route traverse and an 

 occasional observation for latitude ; they either themselves 

 make careful reconnaissance surveys of the country adjoin- 

 ing their route or they are accompanied by trained 

 surveyors, who make such surveys. 



Again, every year the area surveyed on correct scientific 

 principles is extended. The interesting address of my pre- 

 decessor. Major Hills, will have told you what is being 

 done in this way in the British Crown colonies. In the 

 British self-governing colonies and in the colonies and 

 dependencies of other Powers the area of regular survey 

 is being continually extended, and in more remote regions- 

 surveys are being carried out by Boundary Commissions 

 or for railways or other purposes. .Mong with the in- 

 creasing appreciation of the value of geography which has 

 taken place of late years, there has been an increasing 

 recognition of the need for regular surve)-s, and it is prob- 

 able that the next generation will find that not only is no 

 considerable area of the earth's surface unexplored, but 

 that the area not yet surveyed at least geographically, or 

 for which a regular survey has not been projected, is 

 getting 'limited. 



I propose in the rest of my address to deal with the- 

 regular survey and mapping of new areas, and to discuss 

 various questions connected therewith ; if I am right irr 

 believing that large areas will be regularly surveyed in the- 

 near future, such questions merit careful consideration. 

 I shall state on these points the practice of some of the 

 great national surveys, because their experience seems the 

 best guide for future work ; but I recognise that methods 

 suitable for rich and populous countries, such as Germany, 

 France, or Great Britain, may be too costly for many 

 countries and provinces the survey of which has still to 

 be made, and mention will be made of less expensive- 

 methods which are likely to be much in demand in future. 



It would be difficult to say anything new on the subject 

 I propose to deal with, and I lay no claim to do so, still' 

 less do I wish to dogmatise as to the best methods. When 

 I express opinions I shall also state the practice of some 

 of the principal surveys of the world, and my hearers 

 having weighed the matter can accept my opinions or not 

 according to their judgment. In either case my object 

 will have been attained if careful consideration is given to 

 the points raised. 



Maps may be roughly divided into three classes : — 



fi) Geographical maps — i.e. those on very small scales. 



(2) Topographical maps. The dividing line between these 

 and geographical maps is not very clearly defined. For the 

 purpose of this address maps between the scales of 4 miles 

 to the inch and i^frj^ scale will be considered' as topo- 

 graphical. 



(3) Cadastral maps — i.e. maps on large scales mainly for 

 property purposes. 



.^s the time at my disposal will not admit of my discuss- 

 ing all three classes of maps, and as I have on a previous 

 occasion read a paper to this .'\ssociation on " Cadastral 

 Surveying," I propose to limit my remarks to topographical 

 surveys and maps. 



In most of the older countries topographical surveys 

 have originally been made to meet military needs, and' 

 as a rule they are carried out under military supervision. 



