September i6, 1909J 



NA TURE 



547 



Taking the combined over-sea traffic inwards and out- 

 wards, it employed 18,506 ships of 14,528,000 tons, the 

 cargoes of which aggregated 7,174,000 tons dead-weight 

 and 3,284,000 measurement tons, tlie crews exceeding 

 576,000 otlicers and men. 



Of the 2603 Britisli sliips entered inwards, there came 

 from Great Britain 852 ships of 3,392,000 tons, carrying 

 as cargoes more tlian 860,000 tons dead-weight and 153,600 

 tons measurement ; while there came from British Colonies 

 399 ships of nearly 381,000 tons, carrying cargoes of 

 236,000 tons dead-weight and 44,000 tons measurement. 

 Of the 2533 British ships entered outwards, there pro- 

 ceeded to Great Britain 732 ships of 2,529,000 tons, carry- 

 ing cargoes of 1,635,000 tons dead-weight and 509,000 tons 

 measurement ; while there sailed for British Colonies 648 

 ships of nearly 400,000 tons, carrying cargoes of 259,000 

 tons dead-weight and 76,500 tons measurement. 



It will be seen, therefore, that the British ships entered 

 inwards carried more than 54 per cent, of the total dead- 

 weight cargoes and 143 per cent, of the measurement 

 goods, while foreign ships carried about 37 per cent, of the 

 dead-weight and rather more than 2 per cent, of the measure- 

 ment goods. British ships entered outwards carried more 

 than 50 per cent, of the total dead-weight, and more than 

 46 per cent, of the measurement ; whereas foreign ships 

 carried only about 30 per cent, of the dead-weight, and 

 not quite 35 per cent, of the measurement. 



The trade from and to ports in the British Empire 

 amounted to 45 per cent, of the grand total dead-weight 

 freight ; and ships carrying the British flag — excluding 

 Canadian vessels — carried about 56 per cent, of the grand 

 total dead-weight, and nearly 30 per cent, of the measure- 

 ment goods. Including Canadian vessels, the British 

 Empire can claim possession of 675 per cent, of the total 

 dead-weight trade, and 822 per cent, of the measurement 

 goods. The average tonnage per ship for the British was 

 about 1700 tons ; for the Canadian vessels less than 300 

 tons ; for the foreign ships a little more than goo tons. 



It may be interesting to add a few figures showing the 

 magnitude of the coasting trade of the Dominion. In 190S 

 there arrived and departed 104,527 steamers aggregating 

 nearly 42,857,000 tons, and 50,710 sailing ships aggre- 

 gating 7,673,000 tons. The sailing ships included nearly 

 50,200 small schooners, sloops, barges, canal boats, &c., 

 averaging about 150 tons each. The grand totals for the 

 coasting trade were 155,237 ships of 50,530,000 tons, and 

 of these 151,873 ships of 47,356,000 tons were classed as 

 British in the official returns. It will be obvious that great 

 importance must attach to every detail of the business 

 involved in carrying on a shipping trade of the magnitude 

 indicated by the foregoing figures, and still more is this 

 the case in regard to the immensely greater transactions 

 of British shipping considered as a whole. No pains must 

 be spared in promoting economy or improving procedure, 

 and even minute savings on particular items must be 

 secured, since their aggregate effect may be of vast amount. 



Since the introduction of iron for the structures of ships 

 and of steam as the propelling power marvellous economies 

 have been effected in the cost of over-sea transport. The 

 chief causes contributing to this result have been (i) 

 improvements in steam machinery, leading to great re- 

 ductions in coal consumption ; (2) considerable enlargement 

 in the dimensions of ships ; and (3) the supersession of 

 iron by steel for structures and machinery. It is un- 

 necessary, and would be impossible on this occasion, to 

 deal in any detail with these matters, which have been 

 illustrated repeatedly by many writers, including the 

 speaker. On the other hand, it would be improper to 

 leave altogether without Illustration the remarkably low 

 cost of sea transport under existing conditions, since it 

 has great influence on the commerce of the British Empire 

 and of the world. 



_ Rates of freight, of course, vary greatly as the con- 

 ditions of trade and the stress of competition change. At 

 the present time these conditions remain unfavourable, 

 although it may be hoped that there are signs of improve- 

 ment, after long and severe depression. It will be prefer- 

 able, therefore, to give facts for more normal circum- 

 stances, such as prevailed five or six years ago. Coal 

 was then carried from the Tyne to London (315 miles) 

 for 3*. 3d. a ton ; to Genoa (2388 miles) for 5^. a ton ; 

 NO. 2081, VOL\ 81] 



to Bombay (635S miles) for 8s. bd. a ton, including Suez 

 Canal dues. The corresponding rates of freight were 

 o-iii, 0-025, ^nd 0016 of a penny per ton-mile. 



Grain was brought across the Atlantic for gd, per 

 quarter in large cargo steamers, whereas in former times, 

 when it was carried in small vessels, the charge was 

 gs. 6d. Goods were carried 6400 miles eastward vid the 

 Suez Canal in tramp steamers at an inclusive charge of 

 25^. to 30s. a ton, the freight rate averaging about 0-05 

 of a penny per ton-mile. It was estimated at that time 

 that the average railway rate per ton-mile in Great Britain 

 for cost of transport and delivery of goods was about 

 thirty times as great ; but the moderate distances travelled, 

 local and national taxation, high terminal charges, and 

 the immense outlay involved in the construction, equip- 

 ment, and maintenance of railways account for much of 

 the great difference in cost of transport. The ocean 

 furnishes a free highway for the commerce of the world. 



Economy of fuel-consumption has played a great part 

 in the reduction of working expenses in steamships. Fifty 

 years ago from 4 to 5 lb. of coal per indicated horse- 

 power represented good practice in marine engineering for 

 screw steamships. At present, with quadruple expansion 

 engines, high-steam pressures, and more efficient recipro- 

 cating engines from li to i| lb. is common practice, and 

 better results aie claimed in some cases. A cargo steamer 

 of the tramp type, carrying 6500 tons dead-weight, can 

 cover about 265 knots in twenty-four hours in fair weather 

 for a coal consumption of 27 tons per day, representing 

 an expenditure on fuel of 20/. to 25!. A larger vessel 

 carrying about 12,000 tons dead- weight, driven by engines 

 of similar type, would consume about 45 tons in covering 

 the same distance at the same speed. This increased 

 economy in fuel per ton-mile is the result of an increase 

 in dimensions from 365 feet length, 47 feet breadth, and 

 24J feet draught of water to a length of 470 feet, a 

 breadth of 56 feet, and a draught of 272 feet. The first 

 cost of cargo steamers is small in relation to their carry- 

 ing capacity and possible earnings, varying, of course, with 

 the current demand for new steamships. In the present 

 depressed condition of shipping, about 5Z. los. per ton. 

 dead-weight is named as a current rate ; in busy times 

 the price may be 40 to 45 per cent, higher ;. even then it 

 is small in proportion to earning power. Working expenses 

 are kept down also by the use of efficient appliances for 

 rapidly shipping or discharging cargoes, and so shorten- 

 ing the stay of ships in port. As an example a case may 

 be mentioned when a ship of 12,000 tons dead-weight and 

 800,000 cubic feet measurement capacity had her full cargo 

 discharged at an average rate of 300 tons an hour, a 

 fresh cargo put on board at the rate of 250 tons an hour, 

 and 1600 tons of coal shipped between 7 a.m. on Monday 

 and noon on the following Friday — that is, in loi hours. 

 In another case a cargo weighing 11,000 tons was dis- 

 charged in 66 hours. " Quick dispatch " in dealing with 

 cargo is now universally recognised as essential, and it 

 has been asserted that a saving of one day in discharging 

 or loading a tramp steamer when she finds full employ- 

 ment may involve an expense equal to i per cent, on her ■ 

 first cost. 



The " intermediate " type of steamer — in which large 

 carrying capacity is combined with provision for a con- 

 siderable number of passengers and moderate speed — is of 

 comparatively recent date, but it has been developed rapidly 

 and is subject to the universal laws to which all classes 

 of shipping conform. Increase of size is adopted in order 

 to favour economy in working and greater earning power, 

 while increase in speed is made in some cases. Vessels 

 like the Adriatic or Baltic of the White Star Line, the 

 Carmania and Caronia of the Cunard Line, and the 

 George Washington of the Hamburg-.'\merican Line illus- 

 trate this statement ; while its latest and greatest examples 

 are found in the two steamers now building for the White 

 Star Line by Messrs. Harland and Wolff, which are said' 

 to be of 45,000 tons, to be intended to steam twenty to 

 twenty-one knots, to provide accommodation for a great 

 number of passengers, and to have large capacity for 

 cargoes. In mail and passenger steamers of the highest 

 speed increase in dimensions is devoted chiefly to pro- 

 vision for more powerful propelling apparatus and for a- 

 correspondingly large quantity of fuel, and the cargo- 



