50 TRANSACTIONS OF THE 
ceedingly important. All of the grazing land cannot be 
eliminated from the forests without crippling their admin- 
istration since much of it is in small areas scattered among 
the timber bodies. Moreover, in the open stands, the forage 
is even among the trees themselves. 
For these reasons it has been found impractical to 
separate entirely forest land and grazing land. In this 
region it is necessary to handle much of the summer range, 
at least, along with the forests with which it is so inti- 
mately connected. 
Now grazing has some effect on the timber areas. 
This effect will depend on several things, chiefly amount 
and kinds of grazing, the forest type, the stage of develop- 
ment of the stand, character of soil, slope, etc. Grazing on 
cut-over and burned areas where small reproduction is pres- 
ent does a great deal of damage where at later stage of 
development but little injury would be done. Some species, 
notably Douglas Fir, on account of the tender foliage, are 
very susceptible to browsing while other species, as Engel- 
mann Spruce, are more liable to injury from trampling; 
the latter species is practically uninjured by browsing on 
account of the stiff foliage of spiny needles. 
The problem here is to adjust the two industries in 
such a way that the forage may be used and at the same 
time the timber protected at critical stages. 
AGRICULTURAL VERSUS FOREST LAND VALUES. 
Some forests are on absolute forest land, that is, land 
which will produce little else. This may be due to eleva- 
tion, rugged topography, stony and ledgy surface, etc. But 
there are forests on land which is also more or less valuable 
for growing crops. Here is where the problem enters. 
What factors shall be considered in determining how far 
the agricultural development shall crowd the forest? 
Shall this be done at once or distributed over a long period 
of time? There is the precedent of magnificent forests 
swept away in the Middle West to make farms and vil- 
lages. These settlements have proved permanent. There 
is the desire for immediate returns which has had its way 
