48 _ TRANSACTIONS OF THE 
the silkworm he became fully aware of the metamor- 
phosis of insects. Knowing the egg and larval stages as 
he did, it is difficult to realize why he should express his 
belief in the spontaneous generation of insects. In his 
dissections he acquired a splendid general idea of gross 
external and internal anatomy, yet he classifies insects as 
“animals without blood.” 
The great historical figure, Aristotle, is given so much 
space in my brief resume, for he alone in all antiquity 
stands before us as a careful investigator and a philoso- 
pher of the life of the biological world. Modern think- 
ers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries broke 
entirely away from his interpretations of nature and 
developed a new philosophy culminating in the ‘Origin 
of Species.”” The twentieth century shows a distinct and 
growing tendency to parallel his line of thought, and 
while rejecting his philosophical treatment of the sub- 
ject, to endeavor to grasp his subtle understanding and 
sympathy with life. 
With the decline of Greece as the center of culture 
and learning, we lose track of original workers in biol- 
ogy and the historian usually sets up the single Roman 
compiler of natural history, Pliny, as a connecting link 
between ancient and modern biology. His writings 
simply record others’ work and the fictitious tales of trav- 
elers. They are to be read with discrimination, as they 
are entirely encyclopaedic in scope, recounting the fables 
as well as the knowledge of his time. They contain lit- 
tle truth. They were widely read by the Arabians after 
the Roman period, and were a source of the teachings 
of the Moors. They were later re-translated into the 
languages of the Christian races. He interestingly des- 
cribes the origin of the silkworm industry and shows 
that when he wrote the art of beekeeping was already 
centuries old. 
During the long interval between the time of Aris- 
totle and the beginning of the Renaissance, there were 
no important students of insects. The awakening of the 
whole of mankind and all subsequent mental growth, 
economic development and religious freedom of thought, 
trace their beginnings in this period known as the “Ren- 
aissance.” The crusades fostered the spirit of explora- 
