TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 675 



of the relative heights of mountain peaks and of the local value of refraction by 

 means of the theodolite is as much the duty of the triangulator as is the fixing of 

 those peaks in position for the use of the topographer. From these again the 

 altitude of positions in the plains can be safely determined by small instruments 

 of the clinometer class without resorting to the barometer at all, although it may 

 still be necessary to ascertain the value of one initial (or final) point which must be 

 determined by many observations spread over a considerable length of time and 

 synchronous with another set of observations determined at sea, or some already 

 known, level. This of course will occur only when a new geographical area ia 

 opened up to survey at some distance from the sea. 



Universal Mapjnng. 



It will be remembered that a scheme was set afloat some years ago by Dr. 

 Penck, the eminent German geographer, for the mapping of the whole world on 

 the scale of one-millionth, which is very nearly equivalent to the scale of sixteen 

 miles to one inch. Substantial progress has now been made in support of this 

 scheme by English map-makers, especially in ludia, where all the trans-border 

 countries which have fallen geographically into the hands of Indian surveyors are 

 now being mapped on this scale. In the commencement of all great colonial 

 survey schemes it is much to he hoped that this project for one homogeneous and 

 universal map will not be lost sight of. 



Map Spelling, 



I wish that we were as well on the way towards homogeneity in spelling as 

 we are in scale ; but it is much to be feared that arbitrary rules will have to be 

 applied to so many special localities that no universal system is ever likely to be 

 adopted. The further that exact geography extends the more difficult becomes 

 this problem, until at last we shall probably arrive at the conclusions adopted long 

 ago by the Government of India, and consider it best to lay down by order an 

 arbitrary list of prominent names, and rule that the spelling of them shall be 

 maintained as in this list in all Government records and maps. Scientists may 

 disagree, but after all it seems the only practical way out of the confusion that 

 exists at present. 



Terminology. 



There is yet another subject of world-wide interest to the geographical student 

 equally with the practical geographer which requires something of the erudition 

 of the philological scholar to be brought to bear upon it in order to arrive at a 

 satisfactory issue. I refer to the subject of geographical terminology. It may 

 seem an easy thing to be satisfied with such general definitions as are involved in 

 the terms ' range of mountains,' ' coast lines,' ' main channels,' ' watersheds,' 

 ' slopes,' ' affluents,' and the like; but when these terms, and terms similar to them, 

 are employed in international agreements and treaties, carrying with them the 

 necessity for identifying on the face of nature the feature which corresponds 

 , to the term employed, there is always to be found room for discussion as to 

 what its exact meaning may be. For the variations of nature are infinite, and 

 no two features classified under the same generic name are alike. AVere I to 

 give you examples of only a few of the geographical expressions -Ahich, carelessly 

 used, have led up to serious international disagreements you would, I am 

 assured, agree with me that it is high time that geographers all the world over 

 came to some definite understanding about the meaning of geographical terms. 

 To take an instance. What is a ' range ' or a ' main range ' of mountains ? 

 Where does it begin? Where does it end.^ How far does the term involve 

 geological structure ? When a continuous line of similar structure is split across 

 the axis of it, does it become two ranges or does it remain one and the same 

 range ? Or, again, what is ' the foot of the hills ' P Is it where the steep slopes 

 end and the talus or gentle gradients of its detritus commence, or must you follow 



X X 2 



