722 REPORT— 1903. 



sometimes accompanied by coral reefs in all stages of decay, from the living forms 

 to almost structureless limestone. 



In places along the west coast of Ceylon spits of sand stretch across the plat- 

 form mainly near the mouths of rivers. They result from the detritus brought 

 down by rivers, and their general trend to the north-west may be due to the com- 

 bined flow of the streams and the prevailing inshore currents on the Indian side, 

 and in Palk Bay rivers form similar spits of sand which extend towards the north- 

 east. The coasts of India and Ceylon are swept by strong marine currents running 

 up or down the coast according to the monsoons, but owing to the longer duration 

 of the south-west monsoon this produces greater effects, and all rivers flowing into 

 the gulf have a tendency to extend their deltas towards the north. Near the 

 coasts the spits consist of coarse fragments, while further out the sands become 

 successively of finer grain. Long-continued growth of these spits would result in 

 the formation of a platform arching to north. The rocky ' paars ' arrange them- 

 selves roughly into three groups running parallel with Adam's Bridge. The first 

 line is found at a depth of 3r,-4^ fathoms, the second at 6-8 fathoms, and tbe third 

 at 9-10 fathoms. If an area of this character were raised above the sea level we 

 should e.xpect the harder ' paars ' and limestones to exist as islands, between which 

 would be areas of loose drifting sand. 



Such is exactly the structure of Adam's Bridge. Rameswaram Island has an 

 ancient coral reef along its northern border, but the bulk of the island, as well as the 

 others constituting the bridge, are composed of calcareous sandstones, like those 

 now forming in the ' paars.' Similar sandstones are found all along the east coast 

 of India from Cape Comorin to Madras, and are represented on the weet coast by 

 the ' littoral concretes ' which are considered by Oldham to have been originally 

 sand spits or beach deposits. All these contain none but recent shells exactly like 

 those living in the neighbouring seas. As no rocks of undoubted Tertiary age are 

 found on the adjacent coasts, it woidd appear that all through that period the 

 district has been in a state of equilibrium. Since Miocene times there has been no 

 break in the deposition of material, the new beds quietly overlapping the older. 

 In the absence of any signs of tectonic movements during the Tertiary period we 

 are driven to the conclusion that the shallow platform in the north part of the 

 Gulf of Manaar is due to the filling up of the sea by the debris derived from the 

 land. Suess attributes the emergence of Adam's Bridge and the ' littoral concrete ' 

 to a negative eustatic movement of the sea level in post-Tertiary times. This may 

 have been so recent that the great Hindu epic, the ' Ramayana,' which treats of 

 the building of Adam's Bridge, maybe a poetical rendering of events witnessed by 

 man. Although we have no certain evidence that the Bridge was at any time 

 continuous, we have historic data to prove that the island of Rameswaram was 

 once united with Tonitoray Spit. 



If, as I suggest, the various links in the chain of islands represent emerged 

 ' paars,' we have no reason to suppose, judging from the distribution of those now 

 forming, that they were ever united. 



The following Paper was read to open a Discussion on the Teaching of Geo- 

 graphy (joint meeting with Section L) : — 



6. Geographical Education. By H. J. Mackindee. 



Classics and mathematics are effective educational disciplines largely because, 

 as the result of long experience, they can be taught by methods which are pro- 

 gressive from the lower to the higher forms of a school. If geography is to be 

 generally utilised in secondary education, it must become similarly -progressive 

 rather than merely cumulative of facts. In practice this implies the fulfilment of 

 three conditions : — 



(1) That the pupils be classed in special ' sets ' for geography, lest they omit 

 stages in the argument ; . 



(2) that the master know the subject thoroughly ; and 



