PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 2 
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engraved on copper, the detail is rather crowded on some sheets. The 
French Carte Vicinale is, in my opinion, rather crowded with names. 
The most difficult question, and that on which opinions differ most, is 
-the method of representing ground forms. Methods which answer well on 
steep ground are less satisfactory on gentle slopes, and vice versd, and each 
method is open to some objection. 
Ground forms may be indicated by contours, hill shading in stipple, 
vertical hachures, horizontal hachures, the layer system, or by a combination 
of some of these. 
Ground forms are represented by contours on the z545,-scale maps of 
the German States, the Swiss Siegfried Atlas, the maps of the United 
States, the l-inch map of Canada, the zy4,5,5-scale map of Denmark, and 
the maps of Japan. Where the slopes are steep the contours give almost 
the effect of hill-shading. Some of these maps give a very good representa- 
tion of the ground, the best being those in which the contours are in colour. 
Hill features are shown by stipple shading on the French Carte Vicinale 
and the Ordnance Survey four-mile map. In mountainous country stipple 
shading gives a good pictorial representation of the ground, but it fails 
in flatter country, and it is often difficult to tell from it which way slopes 
run. 
The Swiss Dufour Atlas (;5,/555 scale) is a good example of vertical 
hachuring, as are some of the German ;y,/555-Scale maps. Vertical hachures 
are also used on the Austrian and Swedish maps, and in conjunction with 
contours on the maps of several other countries. 
Vertical hachures when well executed give an artistic and graphic repre- 
sentation of the hills. In the Swiss and British maps the pictorial effect 
is enhanced by assuming a light from the left-hand top corner. In steep 
ground, especially when the hachures are in black, these are apt to obscure 
detail and names. I think hachures are better when printed in colour, 
but many will disagree with me on this point. 
Horizontal hachuring, while having some advantages, is less effective 
and is little used. 
The system generally known as the layer system has been used in Great 
Britain by the well-known Scotch firm of J. Bartholomew & Co., has 
recently been adopted by the Ordnance Survey for its 4-inch maps, and is 
used in the }-inch maps of Canada. It consists in indicating by various 
shades of colour the area lying between certain contours; thus one shade 
may be given to all ground below the 50-foot contour, another shade to 
ground between the 50 and 100 foot contour, and so on. This system gives 
a general indication of ground form and enables the contour lines to be 
followed more easily. Its shades of colour enable the eye to pick out more 
easily all land lying at about the same level. It is most effective in ground 
with a small range of vertical height, as the vertical depth of layers can 
then be small and the distinction in colour between successive layers marked. 
In hilly ground the depth of-the layer must be increased, which means that 
many ground features are ignored on the map, or the number of layers on 
the map must be large, in which case the distinction in shade between 
successive layers will be less marked. This method is popular in Great 
Britain, and enables those who are not versed in reading contours and 
hachures to realise something of the nature of the ground forms. 
A combination of these methods has been used as follows :— 
France on her 5;},7-scale maps shows ground forms by contour lines 
and stipple shading. This gives a very fair representation of the ground, 
but where the contours are very close together the effect of the coloured 
contours on the stipple is not pleasant. Nor does the stipple always look 
well when it falls on colour. 
The German coloured z57555-scale map, the Italian yss555, and the 
British 1-inch show both contours and vertical hachures, 
Ss. 
