35 
or 
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 
The dislocation in the Carboniferous rocks amounts to about 400 yards, but the 
Permian rocks have not been even cracked; though broken and displaced by 
numerous faults of later date, they pass undisturbed over this great dislocation, 
the movement along it obviously having ceased before they were deposited. This 
fault forms part of the upheaval which brought the older rocks of Cumberland 
and Westmoreland to the surface, and in that sense it may be said to form the 
north-western frontier of the Lake District. 
On the north-eastern side also of the Lake District the Permian rocks rest upon 
uptilted Carboniferous strata, but the axis of upheaval runs in a north-north- 
westerly direction and defines what we may regard as the north-eastern frontier, 
Along this frontier much movement has taken place in post-Permian times, but 
the unconformable relations of the Permian and Carboniferous rocks enable us to 
distinguish that part of the tilting which intervened between the two periods. On 
the south-eastern frontier also the Carboniferous rocks had been upheaved and de- 
nuded before the Permian sandstones were laid down. A huge fault, along which 
Carboniferous rocks have been jammed from the east in a multitude of plications 
against Silurian, runs from Kirkby Stephen by Dent to Kirkby Lonsdale, and thence 
trends south-eastwards by Settle. It is highly probable, though it has not been 
proved, that this fault is of pre-Permian age. That the Pendle axis which upheaves 
the Lower Carboniferous rocks between Settle and Burnley is pre-Permian is placed 
beyond doubt by the fact that an outlier of Permian rests upon the denuded crest 
of the anticline near Clitheroe. 
The south-western frontier is defined by a still more marked unconformable 
overlap by the Permian strata, which here pass over the edges of the lowest 
members of the Carboniferous series and come to rest upon the Lake District rocks. 
We have thus defined the sides of an oblong tract which was upheaved in the 
period we are considering. The older rocks forming the northern part of that 
tract had already had imposed upon them a dominant north-easterly strike by a 
pre-Carboniferous movement of great energy. As a result also of that and other 
movements they had been subjected to vast denudation, not only in the Lake Dis- 
trict, but throughout the North-west of England generally. But while it is doubt- 
ful whether any of the physical features then produced have survived, it seems to 
be beyond dispute that it was in consequence of the pre-Permian movements that 
the older rocks of the Lake District were freed from their Carboniferous covering, 
and that to this extent the district may be said to haye been blocked out in pre- 
Permian times. The detailed sculpturing resulted from later movements, with 
which we are not now concerned. 
During this same period there rose into relief that part of the Pennine axis 
which runs between [ancashire and Yorkshire. The doming up of the Lower Car- 
boniferous rocks and the wildness of the moorlands which characterise their outcrops 
have impressed all who have had occasion to cross from the one populous coalfield 
to the other, and have gained the name of the ‘backbone of England’ for this 
anticlinal axis. Whether, however, it can be regarded as one axis or as the 
result of several movements is doubtful, but not material for our present pur- 
pose. Regarded as a geological structure it isnot continuous with that part of the 
Pennine axis which runs along the north-eastern frontier of the Lake District. 
Passing westwards from the Pennine axis we cross the deep and broad Triassic 
basin of Cheshire, which may be regarded as the complement of the dome of eleva- 
tion of Derbyshire. To the west of this, again, we reach a part of North Wales 
which was more or less shaped out by the earth-movements which came into action 
between the Carboniferous and Permian periods. Two leading faults traverse the 
district. The one runs in a north-north-westerly direction across Denbighshire and 
introduces that little bit of ‘Cheshire in Wales’ known as the Vale of Clwyd. 
Though there has been some later movement along this fault, it was in the main 
pre-Triassic, which statement, in view of the perfect conformity between the Per- 
mian and Trias, amounts to saying that it was pre-Permian. The other passes across 
Wales in a north-easterly direction along the Dee Valley at Bala, and reaches the 
Triassic basin between Chester and Wrexham. The date of this fault bas not been 
worked out in detail, but the fact that it is associated with a pre-'riassi¢ anticline, 
