200 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 



possession above a penny. 2 Though coins are taught in the infant 

 school, the impression is less real and vivid. With older children it 

 is well to know what they do outside of school, as some who sell 

 newspapers, &c, have a much greater acquaintance with coins than 

 others. 



Pictures give some interesting results. At admission examinations 

 it is sometimes difficult to get a response without pointing to the 

 object in the picture required — many children insist on saying ' pitty 

 picsher ' instead of mentioning what it represents. The response, 

 when obtained, usually consists of nouns used as interjections, and 

 given forth with considerable vehemence in the delight of new dis- 

 covery, e.g., cat, dog, horse, &c. In this test some care is needed 

 to be sure the child might reasonably be acquainted with the object. 

 Children have been found who had never seen a cat or a picture of 

 one, and if a cat is not an object of common knowledge, how much 

 must one guard against inferences from failure to recognise other 

 animals. The human figure, cats, dogs, and horses are usually recog- 

 nised, though the latter may be called a cow. Sheep, pigs, and goats 

 are less well known. Sometimes success follows an elephant, tiger, 

 camel, or rhinoceros when a sheep is unknown. This is due to 

 pictures in infants' rooms or a school visit to the Zoo — an impressive 

 event. Birds are usually called ' bird ' without distinction of kind 

 even in Standard I. of the Elementary schools. With defectives at this 

 stage of their education descriptive or qualifying adjectives are 

 extremely rare, and often not more than one noun per picture can be 

 elicited. 



The powers of observation and also probably memory can be tested 

 by asking, ' What did you have for breakfast? ' ' What did you see 

 on your way to school? ' &c. A poor response is obtained in seven- 

 and eight-year-olds suitable for special schools. A good response 

 leads ultimately to more detailed inquiries into possible causes of 

 backwardness. 



Tests of general knowledge such as ' What pulls a cart? ' ' What 

 street do you live in? ' ' Where do the trams go? ' &c, are often neces- 

 sary and useful. The best response is to the second query, since even 

 defective children usually have their address drilled into them by 

 their parents in case they should get lost in the streets. Still corre- 

 sponding children in the ordinary school answer these immediately, the 

 defectives slowly. With these can come simple associations of number 

 and powers of addition and subtraction set, not as propositions but 

 as corollaries. Thus: ' How old are you? ' ' How old will you be in 

 two years' time? ' ' How old were you two years ago? ' ' What day of 

 the week is it? ' ' What is the day after to-morrow? ' ' What was the 

 day before yesterday? ' &c. Dr. Hogarth has described a method of 

 marking the answers in No. 5 of School Hygiene : he gives one mark 

 for the present age, two for age last year, next year, and the year after, 



2 If as a question in a formal series a child were asked ' Would you rather have 

 a penny or a sixpence ? ' it is well to remember an answer ' a penny ' does not 

 mean necessarily it does not know the difference in value, but rather that it is 

 aware the mother would take away the sixpence. 



