ON CAPITAL AND LABOUR. 267 
twofold. In their character as friendly societies they afford relief to the 
members of the unions when incapacitated from work by accidents or sickness, 
andthey provide superannuation allowances for members whenincapacitated by 
old age, as wellas a sum for the funeral expenses of the members or their wives. 
As workmen’s protection societies, trade-unions endeavour to promote the in- 
terest of workmen in matters of wages and hours of labour, to bring about a 
more equal division of work among the members of the union, and, if needful, 
to create a monopoly of labour with its attendant, powers to command a 
higher rate of wages. The means used for such purposes are ordinarily the 
enforcement of rules limiting the number of apprentices to be'allowed in a trade, 
excluding from work, as far as possible, workmen not belonging to the union, 
and prohibiting the employment of boys to do work which ought to be done by 
men. Whilst the employed have thus organized themselves into trade-unions, 
the employers haye likewise resorted to concerted action in many forms, 
Often do they combine in order to regulate the prices of sale of any com- 
modity, as the ironmasters are wont todo. Often do they combine in getting 
privileges for themselves ; but the most signal instance of recent combinations 
among employers is the constitution of a specific society for the protection of 
their interests. 
The National Federation of Associated Employers of Labour, recently orga- 
nized in Manchester, is a defensive organization by the employers of labour 
to resist the designs of trade-unions, so far as they are hostile to the interests 
of employers, the freedom of non-unionist operatives, and the well-being of 
the community. 
Although, however, the general object of such combinations, whether of 
capitalists or labourers, is well known, both from the written rules which bind 
them together and from the action they have taken from time to time, your 
Committee have deemed it desirable to ascertain, by personal contact with 
some representative men from both classes, whether they do now stand by the 
rules of their unions, and how far they are prepared to defend them. For 
this purpose your Committee resolved to hold a consultative private conference 
of employers and employed, not exceeding six or seven on each side, in the 
presence of the members of the Committee, and under the presidency of Lord 
Houghton, for the purpose of discussing the questions involved in the resolu- 
tion of the British Association, and with a view of reporting thereon to the 
same. ‘The conference was accordingly held on the 19th of May last in the 
rooms of the British Association, 22 Albemarle Street, when the questions 
more especially discussed were :— 
1st. What determines the minimum rate of wages ? 
2nd. Can that minimum rate be uniform in any trade? and can that uni- 
formity be enforced ? 
érd. Is combination capable of affecting the rate of wages, whether in fa- 
your of employers or employed ? 
4th. Can an artificial restriction of labour or of capital be economically 
right or beneficial under any circumstances ? 
And for the discussion of these questions your Committee had the advan- 
tage of bringing together a deputation from the National Federation of Asso- 
ciated Employers of Labour, including Messrs. R. R. Jackson, M. A. Brown, 
H. R. Greg, Joseph Simpson, J. A. Marshall, R. Hannen, and Henry Whit- 
worth. As representing labour :—Messrs. Henry Broadhurst, Daniel Guile, 
George Howell, Lloyd Jones, George Potter, and Robert Newton—Mr. Mac- 
donald, M.P., and Mr. Burt, M.P., haying been. prevented from attending, 
And on the part of your Committee there were Lord Houghton, Professor 
