Transactions of the sections. 155 



are foimd to die away to the east ; and from that point Mr. Shaw tells us Russia 

 has it in her power to push her advance or her trade in two directions over level 

 country, either eastward to China, or westward to Turkestan. 



Geography, it is clear, therefore, in these regions, is the right hand of Rulers and 

 of Generals, and determines alike the march of armies and the advance of merchants. 

 Nothing can be done by either without its aid. It is impossible, however, not to 

 admire the energy and indomitable spirit with which Russia, claimiog and freely 

 using all the assistance scientihc geography can give, utilizes the knowledge thus 

 secured. Mr. Shaw relates how the Muzat Pass, leading between Aksu and Kulja, 

 lies over a formidable glacier; and he was assured that forty men were kept at 

 work in the summer roughing the ice for the passage of the caravans. With such 

 a rival it must be evident, if we are to compete in the same iield with any success, 

 that both Government and merchants must put forth all their strength, and neither 

 be scared by physical obstacles nor daunted by expense and risks. This seems to 

 me the great lesson which all these accumulated facts convey. Geography has 

 shown the way, it is for merchants to follow, and Government, if need be, to aid 

 in removing olDstacles not otherwise to be overcome. 



The connexion between historj' and geography, and the important bearing of 

 each upon the other, was scarcely recognized until the second half of the last cen- 

 tury, when several historical travellers gave, with their researches into the ancient 

 history of Greece and Western Asia, many details of physical geograph}', and 

 showed how essential a knowledge of these were to any perfect understanding of 

 the events taking place in the several localities. They must be studied together, 

 as the nature of the ground on which a battle has been fought, or a campaign 

 conducted, must be studied, to understand the movements of the contending forces 

 and the design of the leaders. 



The late Dr. Arnold, in his lectures on history, insisted much upou the mutual 

 relations of history and geography, and the important light which a study of 

 physical geography throws upon the national conditions of life, social and political. 

 " The whole character of a nation," he observes, " may be influenced by its geology 

 and phj'sical geography. Again, geography holds out one hand to geology and 

 physiology, while she holds out the other to history. Both geology and physiology 

 are closely connected with history. The geological fact of England's superior rich- 

 ness in coal over every other country lay at the bottom of the corn-law question. 

 The physiological fact that the tea-plant was uncultivated in any other climate or 

 coimtry than China gave a peculiar interest to our relations with it." And it would 

 be easy to give many examples of this intimate connexion between geography and 

 history, and the mutual aid they afford. 



We have seen how possession of the head sources of the water supplies could 

 determine the fate of a country like Bokhara. And the distribution of river-courses 

 mainly determines the location of great populations, and the development of trade 

 and civilization by facilities of traffic and intercourse. Dr. Arnold, in the lectures 

 already quoted, gives an admirable illustration in dealing with the map of Italy, 

 which I cannot resist bringing under your notice. 



The mere plan-geography of Italy shows a semicircle of mountains round the 

 northern boundary, and another long line stretching down the middle of the 

 Apennines. But let us look a little further, and give life and meaning to these 

 features, as Arnold delighted to do. 



" Observe, in the first place, how the Apennine line, beginning from the southern 

 extremity of the Alps, runs across Italy to the very edge of the Adriatic, and thu8 

 separates naturally the Italy proper of the Romans from Cisalpine Gaul. Observe 

 again how the Alps, after running north and south, where they divide Italy from 

 France, turn then away to the eastward, running almost parallel to the Apennines, 

 till they too touch the head of the Adriatic on the confines of Istria. Thus, 

 between these two lines of mountains there is enclosed one great basin or plain, 

 enclosed on three sides by mountains, opening to the east to the sea. One great 

 river flows through it in its whole extent, and this is fed by streams almost un- 

 numbered descending towards it on either side, from the Alps on the one side and 

 from the Apennines on the other. Who can wonder that this lai'ge and rich and 

 well-watered place should be filled with flourishing cities, or that it should havQ 



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