3.34 report— 1879. 



plates ; and the precise nomenclature we employ is not of much consequence. The 

 important point is that homologous parts should be similarly named, and that 

 parts which are not homologous should not receive the same name as if they were 

 so. In the latter case, Echinoderm morphology, and especially that of the Crinoids, 

 becomes greatly confused. We cannot then say that the basals of the Orinoids 

 are homologous with the genital plates of the urchins and starfishes. One set of 

 plates so-named does answer to this description, but the other set does not, for it 

 is altogether unrepresented in the other Echinodernis. 



5. On the Goal Fields and Coal Production of India. 

 By V. Ball, M.A., F.G.8., of the Geological Survey of India. 



When exhibiting the new geological map of India to this Section at the last 

 meeting of the Association in Dublin, the author gave a brief sketch of the geology 

 of India. On the present occasion he deals with the economic resources of one of 

 the principal formations. 



The coal-bearing rocks of Peninsular India are all included within the limits of 

 the great series of plant-bearing rocks to which the term Gondwana has been 

 applied, and they are further limited to two groups of rocks which occur in the 

 lower portion of that series. 



By some authorities the age of these Gondwana rocks is supposed to be equiva- 

 lent to that of the European formations which range between and include the 

 Lower Oolite and the base of the Trias (Buntsandstein). By others the lower 

 measures, including the coal, are believed to be palasozoic. The author proceeded to 

 give an outline of the recent discussions on this subject, referring particularly to 

 Mr. W. T. Blandford's judicial summary of the evidence in the lately issued ' Manual 

 of the Geology of India.' 



The distribution of the coal-bearing areas was then pointed out on a series of 

 maps which were exhibited, and the number of distinct coal-fields was stated to 

 amount to about thirty. Some details were then given regarding these fields, of 

 which five only are worked at present, namely, Banigunj, Kurhurbali, and Dalton- 

 gunj in Bengal, and Mopani and Warora in the Central Provinces. 



The total area of the Indian coal-fields is estimated by Mr. Hughes at upwards 

 of 30,000 square miles. Three countries only contain larger areas, viz. United States 

 500,000, China 400,000, Australia 240,000. 



The amount of coal raised in India varies a good deal from year to year with 

 the supply of sea-borne coal in the market ; this latter depends very much on the 

 amount of tonnage available. Wars, famines, and other extraneous influences 

 arising from time to time, bring a greater or less number of steamers and ships to 

 the Indian ports, and these, in default of other cargo, often load up witli coal. 



During the last twenty years coal from Australia has been imported into India 

 somewhat fitfully, and the supply from that source has now nearly dwindled 

 to nothing. 



In quality the Indian coals are inferior to the average of English and Austra- 

 lian ; but they are capable of accomplishing good work in locomotives, and for this 

 purpose they are largely employed on the main lines of railway in India. And 

 were it not for the long and expensive land carriage from the fields in Bengal and 

 the Central Provinces to the Bombay and Madras Presidencies there can be little 

 doubt that they would be employed to the exclusion of all foreign sea-borne coal. 

 Partly from this reason, and partly also from the impurity of the coals, they are 

 not largely used in steamers, but even in this respect their employment is steadily 

 increasing. Some of the steam companies rely chiefly upon them, and the swift 

 opium steamers which run between Calcutta and China use Indian coal mixed in 

 equal proportions with English. 



The author proceeded to give further details as to the quality of the coal, 

 stating that the anthracite varieties were rare, the general character being bitu- 

 minous and the structure laminated — bright and dull layers alternating. 



In Bengal the mines are worked by a number of different companies, some of 



