The Renaissance. 85 



of the world was entirely remodelled by the discovery of America, and we 

 cannot leave it without enumerating the discoveries and inventions which 

 represent the scientific progress of the Kenaissance. Roger Bacon, already 

 mentioned, claims a place as an innovator in science by his mathematical 

 and chemical researches, knowledge of optics and gunpowder, which re- 

 volutionised the art of warfare, making of spectacles ; but above all in his 

 understanding of the telescope, he was a pioneer of modern times. 

 Copernicus was another product of the Kenaissance. He shattered 

 Ptolemy's theory of the Universe, which made the earth the fixed centre, 

 with sun, moon and stars revolving round it, and laid i: down that the 

 earth was merely a unit in a number of worlds revolving round the sun. 

 Galileo followed Copernicus and elaborated his theories, for which he was 

 imprisoned by the Inquisition. He improved the telescope and used it for 

 astronomical purposes. Later on came William Harvey, who discover .d 

 the circulation of the blood, and revolutionised pathology. 



Most important of all perhaps was the discovery of printing which 

 made it possible to perpetuate the ideas and discoveries of all writers in a 

 way which could not be done before. Teaching was greatly facilitated, 

 as a lecturer need no longer dictate the text, and the Bible was brought 

 within the reach of all but the poorest. And in all of these inventions 

 the spirit of the time was clearly manifested. 



It was said that one of the greatest achievements was the discovery of 

 Man. The emancipation which this movement brought about affected not 

 only individuals but also States. The principles of Feudalism were broken 

 down, and in place of an Empire claiming universal allegiance, there grew 

 up the sentiment of nationality. The three great nations which began to 

 dominate Europe were France, Spain and England. France, which had 

 been a conglomeration of great Feudal States over which the authority of 

 the King was nominal, was gradually consolidated by war and diplomacy, 

 and was finally nationalised by the elaborate policy of Richelieu Spain, 

 which consisted of two independent States was nationalised by the marriage 

 of Ferdinand of Aragon to Isabella of Castile aud the subsequent expul- 

 sion of the Moors ; England emerged from the Wars of the Roses to 

 be nationalised by the House of Tudor under Henry VII, and the depth 

 of this idea of nationality may be gauged by the splendid behaviour of 

 the people, Ro:nan Catholics included, when they had to face the Spanish 

 Armada. 



The appearance of distinct nationalities opened up new vistas in in- 

 ternational relations. Instead of the dull, straightforward policy of peace 

 with one Power and war with another, bluff, deception and elaborate cal- 

 culations began to play a part. The theory of the balance of power arose, 

 and the game grew more and more scientific. The creator of this cold and 

 calculating science of statecraft was perhaps the most typical and the most 

 interesting child of the Renaissance, Niccolo Machiavelli, whose theory 

 was to separate from ethics the pursuit of politics as a science and gov- 

 ernment as an art. " The Amhassador was the man who wis sent abroad 

 to lie for the good of his country." Slatesmen had to consider statecraft 



