214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXVIII. 
to-day marked by the ruins of the Median Wail between Beled and Samarra and 
now over 400 miles from the coast. The old estuary of the Euphrates would be 
about the same distance while that of the Karun was in the vicinity of Ahwaz. 
As the rivers raised the level of the delta, the sea was gradually forced back. In 
Assyrian times it is supposed to have reached Ur of the Chaldees on the Euphrates 
and to Amara on the Tigris ; since then it has receded another 180 miles to Fao. 
The rivers when in flood, still rise above the level of the whole area and are kept 
more or less in their course by artificial banks. 
In many parts there is fertile soil right wp to the river banks on which wheat 
and barley are grown, while the cultivatable area could by ascientific irrigation 
be enormously extended. In places where the cultivation has lapsed for many 
years, the river banks may become covered with an almost impenetrable jungle 
consisting of Acacia (Prosopis stephania) and Liquorice (Glycerrhiza glabra) 
waist high with bushes of Tamarisk (Tamarix), Poplar (Populus ewphratica), Tea- 
tree (Lycium europeum) and Bramble (Rubus. sp.). Similar jungle grows on 
one or two islands, especially that at Kharadah below Baghdad. Close to the 
river where water is abundant date palms (Phenix dactylifera) are cultivated 
over large areas ; there are also extensive vegetable gardens near towns which are 
planted with figs, apricots, peaches, apples, pomegranates, mulberries, limes and 
occasionally oranges. 
In many parts of Mesopotamia, if one travels ten miles from the Tigris or 
Euphrates or one of the main effluent irrigation canals, one comes to parts which 
lie below the level of the corn land by a few feet. Such land is often temporary 
marsh and is quite dry and sunbaked by mid-summer. There is no boundary 
between these temporary marshes and the permanent ones, many of which con- 
tain huge areas of water which remains two to three feet deep all the year round, 
and grow crops of rushes and tall reeds ; such marshes are the Hor Hawaize, 
parts of the Hamar Lake and the swamp at Nejef, while these at Suweikieh and 
Akkakuf and many others partake of a more temporary character. 
Certain areas are low-lying but have no natural drainage ; some of these patches. 
are only a few acres in extent and are only “ low-lying ”’ by a few inches, others: 
are much larger. In either case, flood and rain water accumulates here and’ 
evaporates, and gradually becomes salter and salter ; at some seasons they are: 
quite white with a saline incrustation. Some of these patches are completely 
devoid of vegetation, in others the succulent bush (Sueda monoica) grows freely. 
Parts of the Mesopotamian plain, which are beyond the present reach of water 
and so practically devoid of vegetation in the summer months, may be said to 
consist of bare flat mud desert, and no stones or gravel are found in the plain 
proper. 
About 50 miles above Baghdad the aspect of the country changes somewhat and 
one leaves the plain proper at the Median Wall. At 120 miles from Baghdad, 
the Jebel Hamrin range crosses the Tigris which passes through the range at 
Fatah Gorge. Between here and Mosul (our limit in this paper) is an undulating 
plain (700 feet) of gravel and stones covered with grass in the spring, and here 
and there along the river are cliffs 100 feet or so in height, similar to those which 
are also found between Samarra and Tekrit. The ground now rises more quickly 
and alluvium gives place to lime stones, gypsum, gravel and rocks. Lying above 
the highest river level, the land cannot be irrigated ; a certain amount of ‘“‘ daim ” 
or rain fed cultivation however, is carried on in the depressions where drought 
resisting wheat and barley are grown and obtain a small amount of water in 
addition to the actual rainfall from the shelving sides of the small hills. The 
low table land after winter rains is covered for a short period with grasses and 
flowers such as scabius, iris, delphinium and wild holly-hock, and is grazed 
over by the herds and flocks of roving tribes. 
2. Crimatr.—The average annual rainfall is six inches, which is confined to 
the months of December to April. The shade temperature rises to 120° or more: 
