ON ECONOMIC TRAINING IN THIS AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 3G9 



seminar, or classes organised like the seminar, oflfer opportunities for 

 guiding a student into the ways of original work. 



Seminar instruction is given regularly in Germany, Austria, Hungary, 

 in the better equipped universities of America, Switzerland, and to some 

 extent in both Sweden and Holland. In Russia the professors may and 

 sometimes do organise seminars or discussion classes. In Belgium, classes 

 are held in connection with some of the courses. 



With regard to the systems of providing for a good ground knowledge 

 of the leading branches of Economics, classification is rendered difficult 

 by the different methods adopted in the various countries. Some are 

 more, some less thorough. Among the former we may put without hesi- 

 tation the countries already singled out for notice — Germany, America, 

 Austria, and Hungary. 



From the accounts given in detail below it is clear that in these 

 countries the study of Economics is advancing. The training is systematic. 

 A fair proportion of students pass from the more general into the more 

 special or advanced courses. The production of work, not necessarily of 

 the first order, for with that we are not dealing, but of the second, or 

 third, or fourth order, is great and still increases. 



AUSTRIA. 



The position of Economics in Austria is largely determined by its 

 relation to legal studies — by the place, that is, which its various branches 

 hold in the examinations qualifying for the legal profession and for the 

 juridical and higher administrative services. According to the system till 

 recently in force, but now somewhat modified, candidates intending to 

 enter these had to attend certain courses at the universities, and to pass 

 certain examinations varying according to the positions sought. Those 

 entering the legal profession had to pass the first State examination in 

 addition to the three j)olitical rigorosa of the university, success in which 

 latter conferred the degree of Doctor. Other candidates only needed to pass 

 the three State examinations. These latter were as follows : — The first 

 (Rechtshistorische Staatspriifung) was held at the end of the second year 

 of study, and comprised the following subjects : Roman Law, Canon Law, 

 and German Law in its historical aspect. The second (Judizielle Staats- 

 priifung) was held towards the end of the eighth semester, in the follow- 

 ing subjects : Austrian Law, civil, commercial, and penal ; Austiuan Civil 

 and Criminal Procedure. At the end of the four years came the third 

 .and final examination (Staatswissenschaf tliche Staatspriifung), which alone 

 is of importance so far as the legal recognition of Economics is concerned. 

 The subjects examined in were Austrian Public Law, International Law, 

 Economics (including Economics, the Science of Administration, Finance, 

 and Statistics). The political rigorosa, while they correspond in outline to 

 the State examinations, have some few points of difference both with 

 regard to method and subjects. They, too, are three in number, and may 

 be described as the Austrian rigorosum, corresponding to the second State 

 examination, the Ptomanist, corresponding to the first State, and the 

 Staatswissenschaftliche, which closely resembles the third State examina- 

 tion, though not including Statistics or Administration. There is no 

 regulation as to the order in which they are to be passed, but that indi- 

 cated above is fairly customary. Their greater severity may be judged from 



1894. B B 



