ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 299 
the scholars who are required to use them, and of employing only such 
books as reach these standards. 
The importance of the matter becomes still more evident when 
we remember that, according to recent medical inspection, at least 
10 per cent. of the children in our elementary schools have serious 
defects of vision, and about 20 per cent. errors of refraction, and see 
less easily and clearly, even when provided with proper glasses, than 
do normal-sighted children. 
At what age should children begin to read from books? Trom the 
hygienic point of view the later the better, and there is reason to 
believe that little, if anything, is lost educationally by postponing the 
use of books in school until the age of seven at earliest. Beginners may 
learn to read from wall-charts; and in the general instruction of 
young children, teaching by word of mouth, with the help of black- 
boards, large printed wall-sheets, pictures, and other objects which are 
easily seen at a distance, is preferable from the medical standpoint, 
for it has the great advantage of involving no strain on the eyes. 
Hygienic Requirements with which School-books should conform. 
The Committee desires to acknowledge the helpful advice received 
from Mr. J. H. Mason, Mr. R. J. Davies, Mr. H. Fitzhenry, and 
Mr. F. Killick in connection with the technical and trade aspects of 
this section of its report. 
The factors which have been taken ‘into consideration are: (1) The 
nature of the psychological process involved in reading; (2) the quality 
of the workmanship employed in book-production; (3) the quality of 
the paper on which text and illustrations are printed; (4) the character 
of the illustrations and the process employed for their reproduction ; 
(5) the colour and quality of the ink used in printing the text; (6) the 
mode of printing; (7) the character of the type; (8) the size of the type- 
faces and their vertical and horizontal separation; (9) the length of the 
lines ; (10 to 18) particular requirements of special subjects. 
1. The psychology of the reading process.—'The special considera- 
tion to be here noted is that the printing should be such as will facilitate 
the main aim of reading—viz., the getting of the meaning of what is 
read. The trained reader generally recognises whole words and phrases 
at a glance. lt is therefore important that the process of beginners 
should be made as easy as possible towards the recognition of word- 
wholes and phrase-wholes by the use of type suitable in character and 
judiciously spaced. The best type for isolated letters is not necessarily 
the best for word-wholes, and attention must be given to the compara- 
tive legibility of letters as seen in context. 
2. Workmanship.—It is possible to neutralise much of the good 
effect of well-selected type, paper, &c., by inefficient workmanship. 
In all the recommendations which follow, good workmanship will be 
assumed. 
3. Paper.—The paper should be without gloss. Glazed paper is 
trying to the eyes by reason of reflections which are apt to interfere 
with binocular vision. Pure white paper gives the greatest contrast 
with the ink, and therefore a paper which is white or slightly 
