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ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 301 
are difficult to see. On the other hand, a very heavy-faced type 
suffers in legibility through diminution of the white inter-spaces, 
as, for example, when the space in the upper half of the e is reduced 
to a white dot. In an ideal type the whites and blacks are well 
balanced in each letter, and it is easy to discriminate between e, c, 
and o, between i and I, and between h and k; and to recognise m, nn, 
nu, nv, w, in. The general form of the letters should be broad and 
square rather than elongated vertically; thus the letter o should 
approach the circular shape. Legibility is not increased by adding to 
the height of a letter without adding to its width. There should be a 
lateral shoulder on every type, so that each letter is distinct. Long 
serifs should be avoided, and any extension sideways which forms or 
suggests a continuous line along the top or bottom is detrimental. 
The upper half of a word or letter is usually more important for 
perception than is the lower half, because the upper half of most letters 
has a more distinctive shape than the lower. In some recent type-faces 
the designers have accordingly shortened the letters below the line, and 
Jengthened those above—thus the p is shortened and the h lengthened, 
at the same time the upper parts of the r have been raised. It is too 
early to pass judgment on the results, and more experiment is desirable. 
It is possible that legibility would be increased by giving more distinctive 
character to the lower half of a larger proportion of letters. 
With reference to the question of ‘ modern-face’ versus ‘ old- 
face’ design for type, the Committee is not prepared to advise the 
use of either to the exclusion of the other, good and bad varieties of 
both styles being at present in use. It is claimed for the ‘ modern 
face’ that the letters are more legible, and it may be conceded that 
failure to provide the minimum height of the short letters is more 
frequent in ‘old face.’ Hence the letters of the ‘modern face’ are 
usually more legible in the case of sizes below twelve-point. The 
advocates of the ‘ old face’ contend that the ‘ modern face’ letters 
remain isolated, whereas the letters of the ‘old face’ flow more 
naturally into words; thus the form of the word and its meaning are 
apprehended smoothly. It is also claimed that the basic design of 
the ‘ old face’ is of higher esthetic merit. The Committee insists on 
the importance of the minimum height and breadth for the small letters 
(vide columns 2 and 3 of the table), and if this be secured, leaves the 
decision between the ‘ modern face’ and ‘ old face ’ to individual judg- 
ment helped by the criteria provided in various paragraphs of this 
report. 
- Italics, being less easy to read than ordinary type of the same size, 
should be used sparingly. 
8. The size of type-faces and their vertical and horizontal separa- 
tion.—The size of the type-face is the most important factor in the 
influence of books upon vision. Legibility depends mainly on the 
height and breadth of the short letters, for the larger the type the 
further from the eyes can it be read with ease, and it is of the first 
importance to induce the young reader to keep a sufficient distance 
between eyes and book. Children under seven years old should be 
able to lean back in their seats and read from the book propped up on 
