SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 175 
maintained—tillage—reasons for operations—effects on soil moisture, soil air, 
soil temperature, plant food, &c.—chemical knowledge applied to manuring 
and its principles—farmyard dung—chemical fertilisers, their composition, 
production, and mode of action—application of scientific principles to farm 
operations, e.g. haymaking, grazing, ensilage—bacteria, yeasts, moulds and their 
work—nitrification and densification—souring of milk—putrefaction—decay— 
ripening of cheese—souring of cider—sterilisation—pasteurisation—preserva- 
tives—plant diseases and pests—remedies and preventives, &c. 
The above is not an exhaustive syllabus, but it gives an idea of subjects 
treated, though not of the order in which they are taken up. The lessons con- 
sist of conversations and discussions carried on in connection with specimens, 
experiments, demonstrations, diagrams, and so forth. The whole is treated in 
an experimental and descriptive manner, and the connection with local indus- 
tries and phenomena is constantly kept in view. Laboratory work goes cn in con- 
nection with the course, but, except in chemistry and botany, no attempt is 
made to keep lecture discussions and practical work together. In the physical 
laboratory the course commences with practical mathematical measurements 
and verification of mensuration formule, and then proceeds to determinations of 
volumes, densities, &c., flotation, hydrometers and their uses—mechanics and 
simple machines—capillarity, surface tension, friction, gravitational and other 
forces, and so on, always keeping the fundamental object of the course in view 
and choosing objects and illustrations in accordance therewith. The object of 
each experiment is stated, results obtained, and finally a full description of 
the method followed is written out in pencil at the bench, deductions and 
inferences are drawn, sources of error are sought for, and their effects esti- 
mated. As a rule each boy, or pair of boys, has a separate problem from his 
fellows. 
As a sample outline of a lesson in ‘ Rural Economy ’—suppose the subject 
is Rolling, which the boys have seen proceeding in the meadows early in March 
as they came to school. The investigation probably brings out the following 
points :—Smooth surface—hoof-marks of animals—presses in stones (how came 
they to surface? lifted by frost—laid bare by washing of rain, &c.), hence 
minimises risk to mowing machine later on—makes surface firm—loosened by 
winter frost; effect on capillarity—capillary tubes made finer, therefore water 
rises to top; effect on evaporation—air usually moist at this season, therefore 
slight; effect on soil temperature—evaporation causes cooling tendency—tight 
soil a better conductor than loose soil—sun beginning to have more power— 
tends to make soil warmer—total of effects, warming; effect on plants—warmth 
causes more rapid growth—roots in loosened soil would tend to be short of 
food and to be dried up and withered—seedling grasses pressed into soil and 
enabled to grow—shoots broken—causes dormant buds to grow out—result, a 
thicker and more abundant crop of grass. Effect on conservation of soluble 
plant food formed during winter—capillarity keeps it near roots. Why do we 
now start rolling the cricket pitch? 
The whole of the information can be elicited from the class by serial 
questions. : 
Up to this point few text-books have been used, but note-books contain 
summaries of all lessons and home-work exercises on them. In the course of 
the lessons interesting facts about the history of science and its pioneers are 
given as occasion arises. , 
In the higher division text-books are used more freely and the different 
branches of science are followed out still more systematically ; but the under- 
lying principle of the course is never forgotten, and applications of the facts 
are constantly demanded. Heat, light, and sound, studied as forms of energy, 
and magnetism and electricity are taken in alternate years. Chemistry is 
further developed, and botany is revised and extended to include plant 
ecology and the study of some of the commoner orders. Soil physics and soil 
biology are further developed, and the chemistry is applied to crops, animals 
and animal products, feeding stuffs, manures, &c. Enough animal physiology 
is given to enable boys to understand the digestive and feeding processes in 
animals, and to compare these processes with those in plants, bringing out the 
fundamental difference that plants in total store up energy, and animals in the 
