626 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 
of a dead person, which is the main feature of gypsy funeral rites. The destruc- 
tion, it would appear, is carried out, not to benefit the deceased in his future 
life, but from fear that his belongings should afford a lurking ground for his 
ghost. This reason is sometimes alleged by the gypsies themselves. It is fear 
of his ghost that doubtless underlies such taboos as the prohibition on the use 
of the name of the dead person, and on the indulgence in his favourite food or 
drink or form of amusement. In all probability it also accounts for the now 
extinct customs of burying the body in an isolated place or in a ditch, and of 
planting thorns over the grave. There are several other interesting funeral 
rites, but they have a more restricted currency. 
Dread of contamination is perhaps responsible for the fact that offences 
against chastity, which very rarely occur, used, until quite recently, to be 
punished by death, or by branding and expulsion from the band; and there is 
some slight evidence to prove that this same dread underlies their one-time 
aversion from marriage in churches. 
Variety and instability are the characteristics of their marriage rites, and 
this contrasts markedly with the unity and persistence of their funeral rites. 
It suggests that they originally had none at all, but acquired such as they have 
practised from time to time by borrowing from European peoples, just as, since 
their arrival in England, they have picked up (and possibly helped to dis- 
seminate) some of our native tunes, songs, and dances, medical recipes, charms 
and omens. Parallels to most of their marriage rites can be found in European 
folk-lore. Not so their taboos and funeral rites, for, whatever their origin, it 
is quite safe to say that the gypsies brought them with them into Western 
Europe. They are intensely, typically, but not exclusively, gypsy. 
5. Social Organisation amongst the Primitive Tribes of Northern Nigeria. 
By Mrs. Cuarues TEMPLE. 
The President's remarks in his opening address emphasise the use of the 
study of native customs (applied ethnology) in administration. This study 
has received particular attention from the Government in Northern Nigeria, 
where, in certain cases, native customs have been perpetuated by embodiment 
in local statutes. It is proposed, however, to confine this paper to a review of 
the customs of those tribes which, to differentiate them from Moslems and 
Christians, are commonly called Pagan—a somewhat misleading title, as in most 
cases their religion comprises a belief in an all-powerful God, as well as in 
animism and ancestor worship. 
Divided into two parts, the first section of the paper describes generally the 
principal native institutions, and the second part supplements the first by con- 
crete examples. 
The basic principle of all the institutions of these tribes was to place the 
interests of the community first and those of the individual second, as must be 
the case with peoples whose right to exist has been challenged for generations 
by their neighbours, and amongst whom lack of cohesion meant extinction. 
The system of land tenure has the first place of importance. Rude necessity 
compelled them to realise that it was essential that each individual should have 
the right to occupy sufficient land for his needs and for that of his family, and 
that, as a corollary, it was harmful to the community that land should be 
monopolised by an individual, or group of individuals. 
Unoccupied lands also are jealously claimed and protected, and cannot even 
be temporarily alienated without the consent of the community. Land cannot 
be bought, sold, or mortgaged, for the living individual has a right of occupancy 
only—a right which, however, passes to his heirs so long as he and they make 
use of the land and observe the tribal laws. Thus land, the first necessity of 
life, is preserved for the use of the community for all time, the usufruct only 
going to the individual. 
The entire machinery of government is directed towards the preservation of 
the tribe as a whole. Every able-bodied male is expected to turn out for common 
defence, much importance being attached to physical fitness; there is, however, 
no purely military caste amongst the tribes of Northern Nigeria. This same 
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