454: TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 
retarded if ever practicable. Lastly, we come to lands like Canada and Australia, 
and with these may be included the United States, where considerable similarity 
to the older countries exists alike in antecedents, circumstances, and prospects, 
though in each case there are undoubted and specific economic differences. 1 
purpose, therefore, while not wholly excluding from our survey countries of the 
two former types, to direct your attention in the main to the last-mentioned type, 
in the hope that by an examination so defined, and a contrast of countries of 
this order with the old European nations, some light may be thrown on the 
causes underlying the more striking dissimilarities in development. 
Before, however, the economic features and differences distinctive of new 
countries are dealt with, it may be well to say a word or two as to the general 
course of early economic growth in England and other European countries. 
Three features call for particular mention. In their early stages these latter 
countries were free from any continuous external contact and interference; their 
relations with each other and the outer world were slight, or at any rate not 
such as to fundamentally determine the direction and nature of their develop- 
ment; they had to meet their own wants and to do this by means of their own 
resources. Secondly, during this period the nation itself was composed of small 
and almost self-subsistent and self-contained groups. Lastly, economic methods, 
social ties, and intellectual attainments were on the same plane, being simple 
and, as we now should say, backward or primitive. 
When we turn, however, to the position of new or young countries either at 
the present day or during recent years, we are met at once by features which 
stand out in significant contrast to those sketched above. Not only are such 
countries in the early period of evolution, but they are in continuous contact with 
other countries, and, moreover, with other countries which are in a very different 
stage of development. Again, they are young countries, in some instances 
inhabited largely or wholly by people, in other cases guided and controlled by 
leaders, modern in every respect and sharing to the full in the science, know- 
ledge, and ideas dominating the older countries. Furthermore, both their social 
and their political features are modern; on the one hand, these are not of the 
type which in the past were associated with the early stage of growth; on the 
other hand, the countries themselves are much less affected than are older 
countries at the present day by traditions and customs which, despite their origin 
in the circumstances of bygone days, still continue to influence the life of the 
present. In other words, they are less helped or less hindered by habits of long 
formation. But these somewhat general considerations are but preliminary to a 
closer and more careful analysis of the particular economic conditions which beset 
countries now in the early years of growth. 
Firstly, such countries, even in the earliest stage, are unavoidably in close 
relations with countries which have attained a more elaborate growth and 
organisation : communication renders isolation impracticable, and every year the 
means of communication increase. It is a question, not of intentional interfer- 
ence, but of that inevitable influence which nations in close relations bring to bear 
upon each other. Nor is it a question of one-sided influence. Older nations 
have been and are affected in their economic policy and organisation by the 
discovery and opening up of new lands and by the events taking place in them. 
Still, it is probable that the influence of the older-established world is more 
powerful, so far at any rate as the direction of economic progress is concerned. 
Be this, however, as it may, it is this aspect which occupies our attention at the 
present moment. The effect is particularly apparent in trade and industry. 
Needs, in other words, are not dependent for their specific satisfaction on the 
internal resources and productive activities of the particular land, and this, 
while important in all instances, is of great moment in the case of a country 
which, as yet without opportunity to develop its powers, is seeking, as it were 
tentatively, the best lines of advance. It is peculiarly open to influences of this 
kind, because its organisation is not firmly established. When the social struc- 
ture is less complete and the direction of development uncertain, the risk of 
future and permanent advantages being outweighed by present gain is enhanced. 
Secondly, in the opening up of resources, the former dependence on the 
internal powers of the country has been essentially modified. Both capital and 
labour can be obtained from outside. This, of course, quickens development ; 
