460 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 
explained before that social or class traditions are derived, at any rate in 
part, from a time when position was due less to economic reasons than to 
causes inherent in the structure of society. These remain on in a changed 
economic environment, with the result that certain grades in the economic 
hierarchy tend to become the partial monopoly of particular classes. Hence 
a separation and a tacit opposition between certain classes with their economic 
development and other classes. Countries which have escaped the earlier stage 
are less affected by considerations of this kind. Furthermore, the present 
industrial condition of older nations is not without effect as an example. The 
public evils of low-paid labour brought up in bad surroundings are an illustra- 
tion of what is to be avoided. It is correctly seen that it is easier to anticipate 
such consequences by avoiding the conditions which lead to them’ than to 
remedy them when produced. 
There is another circumstance which, though by no means universal in new 
countries, tends in the same direction. The effect of different systems of land- 
ownership and occupation upon the position of labour calls for attention in 
countries of all descriptions. Speaking generally, it may be said that free 
access to the land and the existence of small ownership, or to a less degree 
of other means of small cultivation, add to the freedom and increase the 
independence of those employed, not only on the land but in all occupations. 
In this respect there is no doubt much difference between countries of the kind 
under discussion. Stiil, on the whole, the greater abundance of land as com- 
pared with population and the recentness of land legislation offer in such 
countries a wider and a better alternative to industrial and other wage-paid 
employments than exists in several of the older and more settled nations, and 
hence increases the independence of the ciasses concerned, 
On the other hand, certain of the circumstances which give strength to this 
movement on the part of labour affect in a marked way its nature and its 
course. Better opportunity and less rigid separation between industrial classes 
will bring with them in the long run a sound appreciation of the many and 
various factors which combine in economic development. The tardy rise into 
prominence and power of the labour movement at a late date in the develop- 
ment of old nations involves one very real danger which new countries have, 
at any rate, the opportunity of escaping. With the existence of a marked 
separation between the various industrial classes, attended as that is by features 
of distress and less relieved than in new countries by equality of opportunity, 
it is difficult to secure an equable and unembittered consideration of the economic 
importance either of capital or of the skill which directs, controls, ventures, 
and organises. The hardships and inequalities obvious in the system, when 
coupled with the long existence and apparent permanence of the industries, lead 
not unnaturally to an under-estimate of these as factors and to a keen feeling 
that the one thing necessary is a new distribution of the national wealth. 
In these respects new countries have initial advantages. Their greater vigour 
begets a pride in the progress of the community and in the industries and occu- 
pations which embody and signalise that progress ; while more widespread oppor- 
tunity, and the sense of being at the beginning of things, should make them 
conscious that it is their task to devise a system both equable and commercially 
progressive. Still it is one thing to have an opportunity and another to utilise 
it well. 
There are, it is true, certain circumstances which for a time may obscure 
or even hold in abeyance this very necessary endeavour. When rich resources 
are being rapidly opened up and when prosperous undertakings press one upon 
another, people are too busy and too well-off to pay attention to economic 
problems, despite the future importance of their solution. The return to the 
various factors, both capital and labour, is nigh, and there is little complaint 
as to lack of opportunity. It is largely due to this that, even amongst new 
countries, the part played by the forces of labour, and the claims made on its 
behalf, vary so much. Again, no doubt, the political machinery has a great 
influence. A country where the professional politician rules, or where the 
oa exerts its sway, is little likely to develop a sane and well-timed industrial 
policy. 
The effect of economic conditions on national life and standards is a subject 
