690 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1. 



to events which may be witnessed by more than one observer, so briiigLug it 

 into line with other natural sciences. This may be called the scientific motive of 

 behaviourism. But it has a philosophic motive, too, and is jjart of the reaction 

 agamst subjective Idealism. 



Behaviourism is a position which admits of many degrees ; it may imply an 

 absolute rejection of all introspective data and the reduction of human to the 

 same position as animal psychology ; or it may be used merely to indicate the 

 crude problem which it is the business of psychology to tackle. 



The difficulty of defining psychology is notorious, but the history of the 

 attempts shows that they have been intended to avoid philosoijliical implications 

 and to avoid answering questions by implication at the beginning which can 

 only be answered at the end. So psychology with a soul gave way to psychology 

 without a soul, but with states or processes of consciousness. Now we are 

 invited to discard minds or consciousness as the subject-matter of psychology 

 and to substitute behaviour. 



The term is highly ambiguous. It cannot mean merely biological or physio- 

 logical behaviour. It ought not to mean mental behaviour, for then it would 

 depend for its significance on the very notion which it is intended to replace. 

 The processes wliich take place between the immediate bodily stimulus and the 

 bodily response are undeniable happenings which cannot be described in physio- 

 logical or biological terras. 



Introspection in some sense is essential. But it does not imply an 'abso- 

 lutely private mind ' in any sense which would preclude common knowledge. 

 Nor is it necessarily ' reflective ' ; having a pain and being conscious of having 

 a pain are the same thing. 



The data of introspection may be confirmed. And it is irrelevant to say 

 tliat the object is not numerically identical for each observer respectively and 

 for me. It is not the circumstance that certain events can be observed or 

 immediately apprehended by only one individual that makes these facts mental. 

 This circumstance is, in principle, purely accidental, and the facts are mental 

 because they are different iu nature from physical facts. 



'Consciousness' is, no doubt, an ambiguous term, so is 'mind.' But they 

 are both susceptible of explicit limitations by the aid of which they can indicate 

 the subject-matter of psychology with sufficient accuracy for an initial definition. 

 This subject-matter turns out to be much the same as that intended by the 

 moderate behaviourist, but he puts the emphasis on that which is least charac- 

 teristic. In short, Behaviourism brings forward no new class of facts, nor does 

 it shed light on old facts. Its tendency is rather towards obscuring than eluci- 

 dating the problems of psychology, -while to establish its extreme position it 

 has got to reduce processes usually called mental to biological or physiological 

 processes and leave no remainder. 



2. The Relations between. Mayic and Animisvi. 

 By Carvetii Bead, M.A. 



It must be matter of conjecture which of these complexes of belief fir.st 

 arose. Their origins were independept. Magic is the more uniform and per- 

 sistent ; and, on the hypothesis that it was the earlier, we may trace the follow- 

 ing influences upon Animism : 



(1) Many beliefs and practices are prepared according to magical ideas, and 

 then adopted and modified by Animism : 



(a) The idea of invisible force that may act at a distance, first connected with 



charms, spells, and rites, becomes the essence of the ghost and of all 

 spiritual power. 



(b) Magic things (charms) are explained when the ghost-theory arises, as owing 



their powers to in-dwelling spirits. The only difference is that their action 

 now depends upon the spirits' will and caprice. 



(c) Omens, at first magical coincidences, come to be explained as sent by gods. 

 ('/) iSpells addressed to objects become prayers to their presiding spirits; and 



magic rites become religious. 



