On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. 507 
turned out upwards of 10,000 tons each per annum. At the 
present time (1879) there are about six principal European 
companies engaged in the extraction of coal, while many minor 
firms and native associations contribute to swell the total amount 
raised, 
Formerly a large proportion of the coal was obtained by open 
workings and quarries: but at the present day most of the seams 
which were accessible in this way have been exhausted, and 
regular mining is now carried on with more or less system.* The 
miners are, however, individually, in some cases, allowed a degree 
of freedom, or rather licence, which would never be permitted in 
European mines. They chiefly belong to two races, the Bhowries 
and the Sontals—the former using the pick, while the latter 
cannot be induced to work with any other tool than a crowbar, 
with which they produce an altogether disproportionate amount 
of small coal and dust. The pillar and stall is generally practised 
in preference to the long wall system of “getting” the coal. 
None of the mines are of great depth, and a perfect freedom 
from fire and choke damp render it possible to carry on the work 
without its being necessary to adopt the precautions which in 
England only too often fail to secure the object aimed at. Many 
of the seams are of considerable thickness, one which is worked 
contains nearly forty feet of coal. As a rule, however, the thick 
seams, especially those in the lower measures, do not contain the 
best coal. Compared with ordinary English coal, the Ranigunj 
coals, and Indian coals generally are very much inferior in work- 
ing power, still they are capable of generating steam in both 
locomotive and other engines. In 1868 the total amount of coal 
raised in the Ranigunj mines was 564,933 tons; but in 1872 the 
total amount was only 322,443 tons. 
I quote the following from the resolution on the subject of the 
Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal for the year 1879 :— 
“The year was a prosperous one for the coal companies of Ranigunj. 
There was a large demand, and production was greatly stimulated. The 
output is estimated to have been 523,097 tons against 467,924 tons, the 
average of the three previous years. The number of persons employed 
was 388,931 men, 194,647 women, and 27,277 children.” 
The coal, which is fairly representative of Indian coals, may 
* Some of the mines are now admirably managed. 
