400 TRANSACTIONS OP SECTION C. 



striking but is j'et very marked. The change from the Penygeiit block — with 

 its great plateau floor, its step-like Yoredale mountains, capped with grits, and 

 its steep-sided gorges — to the rolling country of Bowland and the Craven Low- 

 lands provides one of the best geogi-aphical contrasts in the North of England. 



To the geologist there are many interesting problemsj in which considerable 

 progi-ess has been made in the last quarter of a century, but many points in 

 which are still obscure. Some of these are : the change in the type of stratifica- 

 tion from the Pendleside type and Bowland type at the southern end of the 

 region, through the Yoredale type to the Bernician of the north, and the satis- 

 factory correlation of the different facies ; the relation of the now famous 

 ' knoll ' limestones, best seen immediately south of the Craven Fault, to the 

 Lower and LTpper Carboniferous Limestones of more normal type, and the 

 whole problem of knoll-structure ; the sharp folding immediately in front of 

 the faults. Dr. Marr has pointed out the knoll-like structure produced in the 

 Keisley Limestone of the Cross-Fell inlier, and has compared it with the lime- 

 stone of Draughtcin Quan-y to the south of the Craven Fault. There are many 

 folded gi'eyish-white limestones in the knolls of Craven which are very much 

 like those of Keisleyj the Carboniferous Limestone floor and the different times 

 of its submergence, on which new light has been thrown by Prof. Garwood's 

 recent work. An interesting paper on this subject was presented by Dr. 

 Vaughan last year — ^his last paper ; the relation of the pre-Pennines — a part of 

 the old Caledonian .system, the rocks of which seem to have had cleavage 

 developed in them during the early Devonian folding, and which suffered denu- 

 dation in later Devonian and early Carboniferous times ; the immense thickening 

 of the Millstone Grit to the south, and the precise relation of its rock-materiai 

 to the denudation of the Caledonian Alps ; and the age of the various foldings 

 and faultings which have determined (in the main) the present Pennines. 



All these problems have their geographical aspect. The old Palaeozoic floor 

 in Ribblesdale and the bit of wild scenery of another type — an inlier in the 

 Carboniferous of the Penygent plateau; the striking rounded and ovoid form 

 of the Craven knolls ; the apparently great thickness of grit of the Bowland 

 Fells, and especially of the Pendle Range — these and many similar phenomena 

 interest alike the geologist and the student of Physical Geography. 



The age of the faults and folds has been discussed by several distinguished 

 workers. There was, of course, the pre-Pennine folding in Devonian times; 

 faulting was possibly in progress in Carboniferous times as taught by 

 Mr. Tiddeman ; great earth-movements occurred at the end of the Car- 

 boniferous period ; Professor Kendall has shown that there was upward move- 

 ment of the Pennines in early Permian times, between the deposition of the 

 Lower Brockram and the Upper Brockram ; the great faults, especially the 

 Pennine and Craven Faults, and the earlier folding were probably Permo- 

 Triassic and possibly in part post-Triassic (the Craven Fault is, in the main, 

 later than the Dent Fault, as it cuts the latter sharply at the southern end near 

 Kirkby Lonsdale) ; the great continent- and mountain-building movements of 

 mid-Tertiary time probably gave (according to Dr. Marr) the final broad form 

 to the Northern Pennines, and determined the general consequent drainage 

 system of the region. 



Dr. Marr, Professor Kendall, Professor Fearnsides, and others have dealt 

 with some of the interesting and important Glacial and post-Glacial changes 

 of drainage of which there are many examples in the Northern Pennines. These 

 Pleistocene changes may be studied especially well in the Howgill FeUs, the 

 Bowland Fells, and the Craven Lowland country. 



The following Papers and Reports were then received in Section C. : — 



1. ISJote on the Occurrence of Refractory Sands and Associated Materials 

 occurring in Hollows in the Surface of the Mountain Limestone 

 District of Derbyshire and Staffordshire. By Professor W. G. 

 Fearnsides and Dr. P. G. H. Boswell. 



